{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T18:50:06Z","timestamp":1791917406600,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCDD"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The advent of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has revolutionized cancer treatment, significantly improving patient outcomes across multiple malignancies. Nonetheless, these therapies are associated with immune-related adverse effects, including cardiotoxicity, which remains a critical concern. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of ICI-related cardiotoxicity, encompassing its pathophysiological mechanisms, risk factors, diagnostic modalities, and management strategies. The onset of cardiotoxicity varies widely, ranging from acute myocarditis to long-term cardiovascular complications. Early identification through clinical assessment, biomarkers, and advanced imaging techniques is crucial for timely intervention. Management strategies include high-dose corticosteroids, other immunosuppressive agents, and supportive therapies, with a focus on balancing oncologic efficacy and cardiovascular safety. Additionally, rechallenging patients with ICIs following cardiotoxic events remains a complex clinical decision requiring multidisciplinary evaluation. As immunotherapy indications expand to include high-risk populations in a curative setting too, optimizing screening, prevention, and treatment strategies is essential to mitigate cardiovascular risks. A deep understanding of the molecular and clinical aspects of ICI-related cardiotoxicity will enhance patient safety and therapeutic decision-making, underscoring the need for ongoing research in this rapidly evolving field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd12070270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T08:24:17Z","timestamp":1752654257000},"page":"270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Navigating Cardiotoxicity in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: From Diagnosis to Long-Term Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6150-5895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Nardin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Oncology, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Sciences (Dimi), School of Medicine, University of Genova, 16126 Genova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8405-7256","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beatrice","family":"Ruffilli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Oncology, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5365-7028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pietro","family":"Costantini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Radiology Department, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rocco","family":"Mollace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Humanitas Gavazzeni Hospital, 24125 Bergamo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Experimental Medicine, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata, 00133 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7160-8812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ida","family":"Taglialatela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Oncology, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9298-7871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Pagnesi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9333-2658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Chiarito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2090-3245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Soldato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.O. Clinica di Oncologia Medica, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7755-4069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Humanitas Gavazzeni Hospital, 24125 Bergamo, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benedetta","family":"Conte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Oncology, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6506-8397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica","family":"Verdoia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Nuovo Ospedale degli Infermi, ASL Biella, 13875 Biella, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Gennari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Oncology, Maggiore University Hospital, 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4668-6661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Nardin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Piazzale Spedali Civili 1, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a036863","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a036863","article-title":"New Approaches on Cancer Immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Cha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. 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