{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T05:08:02Z","timestamp":1779340082072,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCDD"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by structural or functional cardiac abnormalities that impair ventricular filling or ejection, leading to inadequate systemic perfusion and elevated intracardiac pressures. Current epidemiological estimations declare approximately 26 million patients affected worldwide are living with HF. While ischemic heart disease remains the primary etiology, there is a wide range of behavioural factors that significantly influence disease onset and progression. This review focuses on the evidence for established risk factors, including smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, physical inactivity, poor diet, sleep disorders, and psychological stress. Furthermore, we discuss other novel determinants such as electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), cannabis, high-dose caffeine, and psychostimulants. The basic mechanistic pathways, including endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neurohormonal activation, and direct myocardial toxicity, are also pointed out and reviewed in this paper. The aim of this study is to integrate epidemiological data with pathophysiological insights to identify priority targets for primary prevention and highlight areas for future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd13050211","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T13:04:09Z","timestamp":1778763849000},"page":"211","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Well-Known and Novel Behavioural Risk Factors for Heart Failure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9534-3045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Kusyn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Mikulicza-Radeckiego 7, 50-345 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"},{"name":"Lower Silesian Mental Health Centre, J. C. Korzeniowskiego 18, 50-226 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Zdebik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Mikulicza-Radeckiego 7, 50-345 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wojciech","family":"Hajdusianek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Mikulicza-Radeckiego 7, 50-345 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Por\u0119ba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Principles of Physical Activity, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences, I. J. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8366-0239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Ga\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Mikulicza-Radeckiego 7, 50-345 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61752-3","article-title":"The Framingham Heart Study and the Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Disease: A Historical Perspective","volume":"383","author":"Mahmood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2003.12.047","article-title":"The Pathophysiology of Cigarette Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease: An Update","volume":"43","author":"Ambrose","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487318806658","article-title":"Tobacco Smoking and the Risk of Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies","volume":"26","author":"Aune","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.20846","article-title":"Coenzyme Q10 Terclatrate and Creatine in Chronic Heart Failure","volume":"34","author":"Fumagalli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.12198","article-title":"Association Between Vitamin D Deficiency and Heart Failure Risk in the Elderly","volume":"5","author":"Porto","year":"2018","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.03.377","article-title":"Cigarette Smoking, Cessation, and Risk of Heart Failure With Preserved and Reduced Ejection Fraction","volume":"79","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v38.2.06","article-title":"Alcohol\u2019s Effects on the Cardiovascular System","volume":"38","author":"Piano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alcohol Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv094","article-title":"Adiposity as a Cause of Cardiovascular Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Study","volume":"44","author":"Hagg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3576","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvab368","article-title":"Obesity Increases Heart Failure Incidence and Mortality: Observational and Mendelian Randomization Studies Totalling over 1 Million Individuals","volume":"118","author":"Benn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-020-00693-6","article-title":"Physical Activity and the Risk of Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies","volume":"36","author":"Aune","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2022-105669","article-title":"Non-Occupational Physical Activity and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer and Mortality Outcomes: A Dose\u2013Response Meta-Analysis of Large Prospective Studies","volume":"57","author":"Garcia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arayici, M.E., Kilic, M.E., and Yilmaz, M.B. (2025). High and Low Adherence to Mediterranean and DASH Diet Patterns and the Risk of Heart Failure: A Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202501.0458.v1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-025-01697-9","article-title":"Dose\u2013response Relationships of DASH, Mediterranean, and AHEI Dietary Patterns with Heart Failure Incidence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"80","author":"Yan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.901801","article-title":"Prospective Study of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Incident Coronary Heart Disease and Heart Failure: The Sleep Heart Health Study","volume":"122","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Craciun, M.-L., Avram, A.-C., Buleu, F., Badalica-Petrescu, M., Cotet, I.-G., Mateescu, D.-M., Iurciuc, S., Crisan, S., Toma, A.-O., and Avram, C. (2025). Association Between Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. Medicina, 61.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61111988"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)17018-9","article-title":"Effect of Potentially Modifiable Risk Factors Associated with Myocardial Infarction in 52 Countries (the INTERHEART Study): Case-Control Study","volume":"364","author":"Yusuf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2138920","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.38920","article-title":"Psychosocial Risk Factors and Cardiovascular Disease and Death in a Population-Based Cohort From 21 Low-, Middle-, and High-Income Countries","volume":"4","author":"Santosa","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjqcco\/qcy047","article-title":"Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Incident Heart Failure and Left Ventricular Dysfunction: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Potter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Qual. Care Clin. Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e024057","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.121.024057","article-title":"Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Mortality and Readmission in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: The ARIC Study","volume":"11","author":"Mathews","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Auschwitz, E., Almeda, J., and Andl, C.D. (2023). Mechanisms of E-Cigarette Vape-Induced Epithelial Cell Damage. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12212552"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"61","article-title":"Acute and Chronic Carbon Monoxide Toxicity from Tobacco Smoking","volume":"185","author":"Dorey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006799","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.119.006799","article-title":"Association Between Coffee Intake and Incident Heart Failure Risk: A Machine Learning Analysis of the FHS, the ARIC Study, and the CHS","volume":"14","author":"Stevens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.967299","article-title":"Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Mostofsky","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19795","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76273-1","article-title":"Cocaine, Cardiomyopathy, and Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Arenas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpcardiol.2022.101189","article-title":"Effect of Cocaine, Amphetamine, and Cannabis Use Disorders on 30-Day Readmissions of Patients with Heart Failure","volume":"48","author":"Thyagaturu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2024-325429","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk Associated with the Use of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"111","author":"Storck","year":"2025","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz-Garc\u00eda, A., Pallar\u00e9s-Carratal\u00e1, V., Tur\u00e9gano-Yedro, M., Torres, F., Sapena, V., Martin-Gorgojo, A., and Martin-Moreno, J.M. (2023). Vitamin D Supplementation and Its Impact on Mortality and Cardiovascular Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 80 Randomized Clinical Trials. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081810"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-5299.2007.06260.x","article-title":"Loop Diuretic Therapy, Thiamine Balance, and Heart Failure","volume":"13","author":"Sica","year":"2007","journal-title":"Congest. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Shams, P., Malik, A., and Chhabra, L. (2025). Heart Failure (Congestive Heart Failure). StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000001307","article-title":"Risk-Based Primary Prevention of Heart Failure: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association","volume":"151","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019). WHO Global Report on Trends in Prevalence of Tobacco Use 2000\u20132025, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2014.04.016","article-title":"Perceptions of the Relative Harm of Cigarettes and E-Cigarettes Among U.S","volume":"47","author":"Ambrose","year":"2014","journal-title":"Youth Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.18332\/tpc\/94507","article-title":"Shisha Waterpipe Use and Awareness of Health Risks Among Young Adults in a Semi-Rural Underprivileged Community in North West England","volume":"4","author":"Whittaker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tob. Prev. Cessat."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206436","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.6436","article-title":"Dose-Response Association of Low-Intensity and Nondaily Smoking with Mortality in the United States","volume":"3","author":"Christensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.07.014","article-title":"Waterpipe Tobacco and Cigarette Smoking: Direct Comparison of Toxicant Exposure","volume":"37","author":"Eissenberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, M., Villarreal, A., Bozhilov, K., Lin, S., and Talbot, P. (2013). Metal and Silicate Particles Including Nanoparticles Are Present in Electronic Cigarette Cartomizer Fluid and Aerosol. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057987"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7800","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87044-x","article-title":"Low-Temperature < 200 \u00b0C Degradation of Electronic Nicotine Delivery System Liquids Generates Toxic Aldehydes","volume":"11","author":"Jaegers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14495","article-title":"Occurrence of Metals in E-Cigarette Liquids: Influence of Coils on Metal Leaching and Exposure Assessment","volume":"9","author":"Alcantara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.3109\/08037059609062111","article-title":"How Smoking Affects Blood Pressure","volume":"5","author":"Omvik","year":"1996","journal-title":"Blood Press"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntab020","article-title":"Smoking Status, Intensity of Smoking, and Their Relation to Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Working Aged Korean Men","volume":"23","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa010492","article-title":"Diet, Lifestyle, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women","volume":"345","author":"Hu","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2010). How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease: A Report of the Surgeon General, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Shaaban, A., Gangwani, M.K., Pendela, V.S., and Vindhyal, M.R. (2025). Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehae362","article-title":"Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy: An Update","volume":"45","author":"Adler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11744","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000011744","article-title":"The Prognostic Factors of Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy: A Single-Center Cohort Study","volume":"97","author":"Fang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.228","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies","volume":"17","author":"Larsson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2559","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.287.19.2559","article-title":"Effects of Moderate Alcohol Intake on Fasting Insulin and Glucose Concentrations and Insulin Sensitivity in Postmenopausal Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"287","author":"Davies","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.1.184","article-title":"Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Adiponectin, Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha, and Insulin Sensitivity","volume":"27","author":"Sierksma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2006.8","article-title":"The Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Fat Distribution and Adipocytokines","volume":"14","author":"Beulens","year":"2006","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.29.04.06.dc05-1782","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption in Relation to Metabolic Regulation, Inflammation, and Adiponectin in 64-Year-Old Caucasian Women","volume":"29","author":"Brohall","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2021). World Drug Report 2021, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2025). World Drug Report 2025, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130100704","article-title":"Effects of Cocaine on Extracellular Dopamine and Serotonin Levels in the Nucleus Accumbens","volume":"155","author":"Andrews","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, M.H., Block, E., Hu, F., Cobanoglu, M.C., Kanai, Y., and Bahar, I. (2015). Insights into the Modulation of Dopamine Transporter Function by Amphetamine, Orphenadrine, and Cocaine Binding. Front. Neurol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2015.00134"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2558","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.940569","article-title":"Cardiovascular Effects of Cocaine","volume":"122","author":"Schwartz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palumbo, V., Treglia, M., Scimeca, M., Bonfiglio, R., Passeri, D., and Turillazzi, E. (2025). Cocaine-Induced Cardiac Alterations: Histological and Immunohistochemical Post-Mortem Analysis. Diagnostics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15080999"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(94)90087-6","article-title":"Influence of Intranasal Cocaine on Plasma Constituents Associated with Endogenous Thrombosis and Thrombolysis","volume":"96","author":"Moliterno","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.22195","article-title":"Methamphetamine-Associated Cardiomyopathy","volume":"36","author":"Won","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"044","article-title":"Amphetamine-Induced Cardiomyopathy Complicated by Embolic Stroke: A Case Report","volume":"6","author":"Chapman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s40199-017-0170-4","article-title":"Histopathological Study of Cardiac Lesions in Methamphetamine Poisoning-Related Deaths","volume":"25","author":"Akhgari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Daru"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803272","article-title":"The Pharmacology of Cannabinoid Receptors and Their Ligands: An Overview","volume":"30","author":"Pertwee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.5603\/PJNNS.a2022.0015","article-title":"Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potential","volume":"56","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcm.2021.08.004","article-title":"Coffee and Tea on Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Prevention","volume":"32","author":"Chieng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-009-1516-3","article-title":"Coffee and Tea Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"52","author":"Uiterwaal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2020.05.052","article-title":"Coffee Consumption and Risk of Hypertension: A Prospective Analysis in the Cohort Study","volume":"40","author":"Miranda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.164.14.1534","article-title":"The Protective Effect of Habitual Tea Consumption on Hypertension","volume":"164","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (2014). Caffeine in Food and Dietary Supplements: Examining Safety: Workshop Summary, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2014.12.176","article-title":"Green Tea Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular and Ischemic Related Diseases: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"202","author":"Pang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2018.01.012","article-title":"Caffeine and Arrhythmias: Time to Grind the Data","volume":"4","author":"Voskoboinik","year":"2018","journal-title":"JACC Clin. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2005.12.005","article-title":"Caffeine Prolongs Exercise Duration in Heart Failure","volume":"12","author":"Notarius","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"101618","article-title":"Association Between Sleep Disorders and Subsequent Heart Failure","volume":"57","author":"Sedighi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol. Heart Vasc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ddmod.2011.02.006","article-title":"Effects of Heart Failure and Its Pharmacological Management on Sleep","volume":"8","author":"Greenberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today Models"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-024-01505-7","article-title":"Impact of Sleep Problems on the Cardiometabolic Risks: An Integrated Epidemiological and Metabolomics Study","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"104671","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Stress Cardiomyopathy: A Comprehensive Literature Review","volume":"82","author":"Jomaa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2012.45","article-title":"Stress and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"9","author":"Steptoe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-020-10056-8","article-title":"Psychological Stress in Heart Failure: A Potentially Actionable Disease Modifier","volume":"26","author":"Harris","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Purnell, J.Q. (2023). Definitions, Classification, and Epidemiology of Obesity. Endotext, MDText.com, Inc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171016","article-title":"Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Effect of Weight Loss: An update of the 1997 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Obesity and Heart Disease from the Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism","volume":"113","author":"Poirier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchf.2013.01.006","article-title":"Impact of Obesity and the Obesity Paradox on Prevalence and Prognosis in Heart Failure","volume":"1","author":"Lavie","year":"2013","journal-title":"JACC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2018.05.005","article-title":"Obesity and the Obesity Paradox in Heart Failure","volume":"61","author":"Horwich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/1747-0080.12891","article-title":"The Effectiveness of the Mediterranean Diet for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"82","author":"Hareer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Umbrella Rev. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjpc\/zwac003","article-title":"The DASH Diet Is Associated with a Lower Risk of Heart Failure: A Cohort Study","volume":"29","author":"Ibsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0000000000000869","article-title":"Physical Activity in the Treatment and Prevention of Heart Failure: An Update","volume":"20","author":"LaMonte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Sports Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3145","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht347","article-title":"Mortality of French Participants in the Tour de France (1947\u20132012)","volume":"34","author":"Marijon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ras, J., Kengne, A.P., Smith, D.L., Soteriades, E.S., and Leach, L. (2023). Association Between Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Firefighters: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Env. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20042816"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2018.01.009","article-title":"Thiamine and Cardiovascular Disease: A Literature Review","volume":"61","author":"DiNicolantonio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018003725","article-title":"Dietary and circulating vitamin C, vitamin E, \u03b2-carotene and risk of total cardiovascular mortality: A systematic review and dose\u2013response meta-analysis of prospective observational studies","volume":"22","author":"Jayedi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1002\/iub.2507","article-title":"Impact of Supplementation with Vitamins B6, B12, and\/or Folic Acid on the Reduction of Homocysteine Levels in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment","volume":"74","author":"Inzitari","year":"2022","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.121.319811","article-title":"Social Determinants of Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"130","author":"Baumer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.067626","article-title":"Development and Validation of the American Heart Association\u2019s PREVENT Equations","volume":"149","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circulation"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2308-3425\/13\/5\/211\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T04:23:08Z","timestamp":1779337388000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2308-3425\/13\/5\/211"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["jcdd13050211"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcdd13050211","relation":{},"ISSN":["2308-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2308-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]}}}