{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T17:14:57Z","timestamp":1777569297125,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,29]],"date-time":"2021-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624924800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mental health of young adults, particularly students, is at high risk during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in mental health between university students in nine countries during the pandemic. The study encompassed 2349 university students (69% female) from Colombia, the Czech Republic (Czechia), Germany, Israel, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Turkey, and Ukraine. Participants underwent the following tests: Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), Exposure to COVID-19 (EC-19), Perceived Impact of Coronavirus (PIC) on students\u2019 well-being, Physical Activity (PA), and General Self-Reported Health (GSRH). The one-way ANOVA showed significant differences between countries. The highest depression and anxiety risk occurred in Turkey, the lowest depression in the Czech Republic and the lowest anxiety in Germany. The \u03c72 independence test showed that EC-19, PIC, and GSRH were associated with anxiety and depression in most of the countries, whereas PA was associated in less than half of the countries. Logistic regression showed distinct risk factors for each country. Gender and EC-19 were the most frequent predictors of depression and anxiety across the countries. The role of gender and PA for depression and anxiety is not universal and depends on cross-cultural differences. Students\u2019 mental health should be addressed from a cross-cultural perspective.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10132882","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,29]],"date-time":"2021-06-29T10:52:46Z","timestamp":1624963966000},"page":"2882","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["A Comparison of Depression and Anxiety among University Students in Nine Countries during the COVID-19 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9019-7091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominika","family":"Ochnik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Technology, 40-555 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4621-8916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra M.","family":"Rogowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, University of Opole, 45-052 Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5912-5316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cezary","family":"Ku\u015bnierz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Opole University of Technology, 45-758 Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Monika","family":"Jakubiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Economics, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Astrid","family":"Sch\u00fctz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Bamberg, 96047 Bamberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2370-2905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco J.","family":"Held","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Bamberg, 96047 Bamberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Arzen\u0161ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Management, University of Primorska, 6101 Koper, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joy","family":"Benatov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Education, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rony","family":"Berger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Center for Compassionate Mindful Education, Tel Aviv 69106, Israel"},{"name":"Bob Shapell School of Social Work, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3070-2508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena V.","family":"Korchagina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Industrial Management, Economics and Trade, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8111-4469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iuliia","family":"Pavlova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Theory and Methods of Physical Culture, Lviv State University of Physical Culture, 79007 Lviv, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ivana","family":"Bla\u017ekov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional and Business Economics, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zde\u0148ka","family":"Kone\u010dn\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Business and Management, Brno University of Technology, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5307-4474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imran","family":"Aslan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Management Department, Bing\u00f6l University, Bing\u00f6l 12000, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Orhan","family":"\u00c7\u0131nar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Ataturk University, Erzurum 25240, Turkey"},{"name":"Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, A\u011fr\u0131 \u0130brahim \u00c7e\u00e7en University, A\u011fr\u0131 04000, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yonni Angel","family":"Cuero-Acosta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Management, Universidad del Rosario, Bogot\u00e1 111711, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Wierzbik-Stro\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Technology, 40-555 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.250.271","article-title":"The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic","volume":"250","author":"Baloch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, March 15). Rolling Updates on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/events-as-they-happen."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajkumar, R.P. (2020). Covid-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature. Asian J. Psychiatry, 52.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2020.102066"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30460-8","article-title":"The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence","volume":"395","author":"Brooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Lei, S.M., Le, S., Yang, Y., Zhang, B., Yao, W., Gao, Z., and Cheng, S. (2020). Bidirectional influence of the covid-19 pandemic lockdowns on health behaviors and quality of life among Chinese adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17155575"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhao, N., and Zhu, T. (2020). The impact of Covid-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: A study on active weibo users. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17062032"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.04.027","article-title":"Are we facing a crashing wave of neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19? Neuropsychiatric symptoms and potential immunologic mechanisms","volume":"87","author":"Troyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"World Bank (2020). Global Economic Prospects, June 2020, World Bank."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckt208","article-title":"The evolution of mental health in Spain during the economic crisis","volume":"24","author":"Bartoll","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1177\/135910539700200305","article-title":"Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination","volume":"2","author":"Williams","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1192\/apt.10.3.216","article-title":"Poverty, social inequality and mental health","volume":"10","author":"Murali","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Psychiatr. Treat."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonsaksen, T., Leung, J., Schoultz, M., Thygesen, H., Price, D., Ruffolo, M., and Geirdal, A.\u00d8. (2020). Cross-national study of worrying, loneliness, and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparison between individuals with and without infection in the family. Res. Sq.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-34850\/v1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fried, E.I., Papanikolaou, F., and Epskamp, S. (2021, March 15). Mental Health and Social Contact during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study. Available online: psyarxiv.com\/36xkp\/.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/36xkp"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elmer, T., Mepham, K., and Stadtfeld, C. (2020). Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students\u2019 social networks and mental health before and during the covid-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ua6tq"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1007\/s11126-020-09744-3","article-title":"The effect of covid-19 on youth mental health","volume":"91","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Q."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2020.04.004","article-title":"COVID-19: The forgotten priorities of the pandemic","volume":"136","author":"Vieira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867417700274","article-title":"Depressive symptom trajectories in late adolescence and early adulthood: A systematic review","volume":"51","author":"Schubert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2009.01.001","article-title":"Persistence of mental health problems and needs in a college student population","volume":"117","author":"Zivin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2012.11.015","article-title":"A systematic review of studies of depression prevalence in university students","volume":"47","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, G.Y., Tam, W.W., Lu, Y., Ho, C.S., Zhang, M.W., and Ho, R.C. (2018). Prevalence of Depression in the Community from 30 Countries between 1994 and 2014. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21243-x"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1093\/pubmed\/22.4.492","article-title":"The health of students in institutes of higher education: An important and neglected public health problem?","volume":"22","author":"Evans","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Public Health Med."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"167","article-title":"Health-related determinants of perceived quality of life: A comparison between first-year university students and their working peers","volume":"26","author":"Vaez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Work"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1348\/0007126042369802","article-title":"The relation of depression and anxiety to life-stress and achievement in students","volume":"95","author":"Andrews","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2015.12.014","article-title":"Mental health among currently enrolled medical students in Germany","volume":"132","author":"Wege","year":"2016","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1002\/j.0022-0337.2014.78.2.tb05673.x","article-title":"A systematic review of stress in dental students","volume":"78","author":"Elani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000000204","article-title":"The prevalence of medical student mistreatment and its association with burnout","volume":"89","author":"Cook","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acad. Med. J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1515\/ijamh-2015-0021","article-title":"Prevalence and incidence of mental health problems among Dutch medical students and the study related and personal risk factors: A longitudinal study","volume":"28","author":"Borst","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adolesc. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"81","article-title":"Epidemiological aspects of depression among Assiut University students","volume":"2","author":"Hadhood","year":"2005","journal-title":"Assiut Med. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aristovnik, A., Ker\u017ei\u010d, D., Rav\u0161elj, D., Toma\u017eevi\u010d, N., and Umek, L. (2020). Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202008.0246.v1"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gloster, A.T., Lamnisos, D., Lubenko, J., Presti, G., Squatrito, V., Constantinou, M., Nicolaou, C., Papacostas, S., Ayd\u0131n, G., and Chong, Y.Y. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health: An international study. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244809"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adamson, M.M., Phillips, A., Seenivasan, S., Martinez, J., Grewal, H., Kang, X., Coetzee, J., Luttenbacher, I., Jester, A., and Harris, O.A. (2020). International Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Stress during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17249248"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"207","article-title":"Psychological Functioning of Slovene Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Does Resilience Matter?","volume":"92","author":"Avsec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Q."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S. (2020). Subjective well-being and mental health during the pandemic outbreak: Exploring the role of institutional trust. Res. Aging, 25.","DOI":"10.1177\/0164027520975145"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tu\u0161l, M., Brauchli, R., Kerksieck, P., and Bauer, G.F. (2021). Impact of the COVID-19 crisis on work and private life, mental well-being and self-rated health in German and Swiss employees: A cross-sectional online survey. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10788-8"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.04.015","article-title":"Virtual Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Disruptive Technology in Graduate Medical Education","volume":"75","author":"Almarzooq","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaturvedi, K., Vishwakarma, D.K., and Singh, N. (2021). COVID-19 and its impact on education, social life and mental health of students: A survey. Child. Youth Serv. Rev., 121.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2020.105866"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"International Labour Organization (2021, June 11). COVID-19 and the Education Sector. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/wcmsp5\/groups\/public\/---ed_dialogue\/---sector\/documents\/briefingnote\/wcms_742025.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zhang, H., Ma, X., and Di, Q. (2020). Mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemics and the mitigation effects of exercise: A longitudinal study of college students in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17103722"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rogowska, A.M., Pavlova, I., Ku\u015bnierz, C., Ochnik, D., Bodnar, I., and Petrytsa, P. (2020). Does Physical Activity Matter for the Mental Health of University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic?. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9113494"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslan, I., Ochnik, D., and \u00c7\u0131nar, O. (2020). Exploring Perceived Stress among Students in Turkey during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17238961"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juchnowicz, D., Baj, J., Forma, A., Karaku\u0142a, K., Sitarz, E., Bogucki, J., and Karakula-Juchnowicz, H. (2021). The Outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic and the Well-Being of Polish Students: The Risk Factors of the Emotional Distress during COVID-19 Lockdown. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10050944"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, W., Fang, Z., Hou, G., Han, M., Xu, X., Dong, J., and Zheng, J. (2020). The psychological impact of the covid-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res., 287.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.112934"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.06.049","article-title":"Panic and generalized anxiety during the covid-19 pandemic among Bangladeshi people: An online pilot survey early in the outbreak","volume":"276","author":"Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Son, C., Hegde, S., Smith, A., Wang, X., and Sasangohar, F. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on college students\u2019 mental health in the United States: Interview survey study. J. Med. Internet Res., 22.","DOI":"10.2196\/preprints.21279"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schiff, M., Zasiekina, L., Pat-Horenczyk, R., and Benbenishty, R. (2020). COVID-Related Functional Difficulties and Concerns Among University Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Binational Perspective. J. Community Health.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10900-020-00930-9"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kecojevic, A., Basch, C.H., Sullivan, M., and Davi, N.K. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on mental health of undergraduate students in New Jersey, cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239696"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigo, D., Jones, L., Munthali, R., Pei, J., Westenberg, J., Munro, L., Judkowicz, C., Wang, A.Y., Adel, B.V.D., and Dulai, J. (2021). Investigating the effect of COVID-19 dissemination on symptoms of anxiety and depression among university students. BJPsych Open, 7.","DOI":"10.1192\/bjo.2021.24"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cindrich, S.L., Lansing, J.E., Brower, C.S., McDowell, C.P., Herring, M.P., and Meyer, J.D. (2021). Associations Between Change in Outside Time Pre- and Post-COVID-19 Public Health Restrictions and Mental Health: Brief Research Report. Front. Public Health, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.619129"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammar, A., Brach, M., Trabelsi, K., Chtourou, H., Boukhris, O., Masmoudi, L., Bouaziz, B., Bentlage, E., How, D., and Ahmed, M. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 Home Confinement on Eating Behaviour and Physical Activity: Results of the ECLB-COVID19 International Online Survey. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061583"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coelho, C.M., Suttiwan, P., Arato, N., and Zsido, A.N. (2020). On the nature of fear and anxiety triggered by COVID-19. Front. Psychol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.581314"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mertens, G., Gerritsen, L., Duijndam, S., Salemink, E., and Engelhard, I. (2020). Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in march 2020. J. Anxiety Disord., 74.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2020.102258"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.10.018","article-title":"Mental health research in response to the COVID-19, Ebola, and H1N1 outbreaks: A comparative bibliometric analysis","volume":"132","author":"Maalouf","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e6kel\u00e6, M.J., Reggev, N., Dutra, N., Tamayo, R.M., Silva-Sobrinho, R.A., Klevjer, K., and Pfuhl, G. (2020). Perceived efficacy of COVID-19 restrictions, reactions and their impact on mental health during the early phase of the outbreak in six countries. R. Soc. Open Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ce4n3"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Margraf, J., Brailovskaia, J., and Schneider, S. (2020). Behavioral measures to fight COVID-19: An 8-country study of perceived usefulness, adherence and their predictors. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243523"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brailovskaia, J., Cosci, F., Mansueto, G., Miragall, M., Herrero, R., Ba\u00f1os, R.M., Krasavtseva, Y., Kochetkov, Y., and Margraf, J. (2021). The association between depression symptoms, psychological burden caused by Covid-19 and physical activity: An investigation in Germany, Italy, Russia, and Spain. Psychiatry Res., 295.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113596"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s40609-020-00201-4","article-title":"Employment Uncertainty and Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic Initial Social Distancing Implementation: A Cross-national Study","volume":"8","author":"Ruffolo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Soc. Welf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Chudzicka-Czupa\u0142a, A., Tee, M.L., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M.I.L., Tripp, C., Fardin, M.A., Habib, H.A., Tran, B.X., Adamus, K., and Anlacan, J. (2021). A chain mediation model on COVID-19 symptoms and mental health outcomes in Americans, Asians and Europeans. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85943-7"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1","article-title":"COVID-19 fear, mental health, and substance misuse conditions among university social work students in Israel and Russia","volume":"6","author":"Yehudai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reznik, A., Gritsenko, V., Konstantinov, V., Yehudai, M., Bender, S., Shilina, I., and Isralowitz, R. (2021). First and Second Wave COVID-19 Fear Impact: Israeli and Russian Social Work Student Fear, Mental Health and Substance Use. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00481-z"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193146","article-title":"G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences","volume":"39","author":"Faul","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Leiner, D.J. (2020, April 01). SoSci Survey (Version 3.1. 06) [Computer Software]. Available online: https:\/\/www.soscisurvey.de\/."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2008.06.026","article-title":"The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population","volume":"114","author":"Kroenke","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder","volume":"166","author":"Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5\u00ae), American Psychiatric Pub.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"WHO (2021, March 15). Be Active during COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/question-and-answers-hub\/q-a-detail\/be-active-during-covid-19."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-6773.2005.00404.x","article-title":"Predicting mortality and healthcare utilization with a single question","volume":"40","author":"DeSalvo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-005-0887-2","article-title":"Assessing measurement properties of two single-item general health measures","volume":"15","author":"DeSalvo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Statistica (2019). DELL Statistica (Version, 13.1) [Software for Windows], StatSoft Polska Sp.z o.o."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"JASP (2021, March 15). Team JASP (Version 0.14.1) [Computer Software]. Available online: https:\/\/jasp-stats.org\/."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.03.035","article-title":"Gender differences in depression in 23 European countries. Cross-national variation in the gender gap in depression","volume":"71","author":"Bracke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1586\/14737167.2013.815409","article-title":"The effect of severity of depressive disorder on economic burden in a university hospital in Singapore","volume":"13","author":"Ho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Pharmacoecon. Outcomes Res."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Human Development and the Antropocene (2021, March 15). Human Development Report 2020. Available online: http:\/\/hdr.undp.org\/sites\/default\/files\/hdr2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erdin, C., and Ozkaya, G. (2020). Contribution of small and medium enterprises to economic development and quality of life in Turkey. Heliyon, 6.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03215"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"TU\u0130K (2021, March 15). Labor Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/data.tuik.gov.tr\/."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"TU\u0130K (2021, March 15). Consumer Price Index, Available online: https:\/\/data.tuik.gov.tr\/."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2021, March 15). Guide to Credit Rating Essentials: What Are Credit Ratings and How Do They Work?. Available online: www.spglobal.com."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"378","article-title":"Cultural influence on youth\u2019s motivation of participation in physical activity","volume":"27","author":"Yan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sport Behav."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1614.2002.00986.x","article-title":"High prevalence disorders in urban and rural communities","volume":"36","author":"Judd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.J., Park, E., Storr, C.L., Tran, K., and Juon, H.S. (2015). Depression among Asian-American Adults in the Community: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0127760"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(16)30166-3","article-title":"Social correlates of mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in China and India: A review","volume":"3","author":"Cheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, J., Zhou, F., Hou, W., Silver, Z., Wong, C.Y., Chang, O., Drakos, A., Zuo, Q.K., and Huang, E. (2021). The prevalence of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and sleep disturbance in higher education students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res., 301.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2021.113863"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2021, March 15). Human Development Report 2020\u2014Table 5: Gender Inequality Index. Available online: http:\/\/hdr.undp.org\/en\/content\/table-5-gender-inequality-index-gii."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2009.36","article-title":"Cross-national associations between gender and mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys","volume":"66","author":"Seedat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aneshensel, C.S., Phelan, J.C., and Bierman, A. (2013). Gender and Mental Health. Handbook of the Sociology and Mental Health, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4276-5"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Ker\u010d, P., Krohne, N., \u0160raj Lebar, T., and \u0160tirn, M. (2021, April 19). Izsledki Raziskave za Oceno Potreb po Psihosocialni Podpori med Epidemijo Covida-19 [Results of a Study to Assess the Need for Psychosocial Support during the Covid-19 Epidemic]. Available online: http:\/\/www.dps.si\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/Izsledki-raziskave-za-oceno-potreb.pdf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2150132720981540","article-title":"The Impact of Age on Negative Emotional Reactions, Compliance with Health Guidelines, and Knowledge About the Virus during the COVID-19 Epidemic: A Longitudinal Study from Israel","volume":"11","author":"Levkovich","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Prim. Care Community Health"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"246","article-title":"A comparison of self-reported versus clinician-related symptoms in depression","volume":"48","author":"Rush","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0327(99)00156-1","article-title":"Discrepancies between self and observer ratings of depression\u2014The relationship to demographic, clinical and personality variables","volume":"60","author":"Enns","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.11.109","article-title":"Mental Health among College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: A 2-Wave Longitudinal Survey","volume":"281","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debowska, A., Horeczy, B., Boduszek, D., and Dolinski, D. (2020). A repeated cross-sectional survey assessing university students\u2019 stress, depression, anxiety, and suicidality in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. Psychol. Med., 1\u20134.","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329172000392X"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Rogowska, A.M., Ku\u015bnierz, C., Ochnik, D., Sch\u00fctz, A., Kafetsios, K., Aslan, I., Pavlova, I., Benatov, J., Arzen\u0161ek, A., and Jakubiak, M. (2020). Wellbeing of Undergraduates during the COVID-19 Pandemic: International Study, OSF. Available online: https:\/\/osf.io\/q5f4e."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/10\/13\/2882\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:26:32Z","timestamp":1760163992000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/10\/13\/2882"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,29]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm10132882"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm10132882","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,29]]}}}