{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:50:18Z","timestamp":1787028618494,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,7]],"date-time":"2021-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus (RSE and SRSE) are life-threatening conditions requiring prompt initiation of appropriate treatment to avoid permanent neurological damage and reduce morbidity and mortality. RSE is defined as status epilepticus that persists despite administering at least two appropriately dosed parenteral medications, including a benzodiazepine. SRSE is status epilepticus that persists at least 24 h after adding at least one appropriately dosed continuous anesthetic (i.e., midazolam, propofol, pentobarbital, and ketamine). Other therapeutic interventions include immunotherapy, neuromodulation, ketogenic diet, or even surgical intervention in certain cases. Continuous electroencephalogram is an essential monitoring tool for diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we focus on the diagnosis and treatment of RSE and SRSE.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10143028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,7]],"date-time":"2021-07-07T12:31:25Z","timestamp":1625661085000},"page":"3028","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Review and Updates on the Treatment of Refractory and Super Refractory Status Epilepticus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yazeed S.","family":"Alolayan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly","family":"McKinley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ritwik","family":"Bhatia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayham","family":"Alkhachroum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13121","article-title":"A definition and classification of status epilepticus\u2014Report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification of Status Epilepticus","volume":"56","author":"Trinka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-012-9695-z","article-title":"Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Status Epilepticus","volume":"17","author":"Brophy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurocrit. 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