{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T15:55:40Z","timestamp":1792857340100,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rhinitis describes a pattern of symptoms as a result of nasal inflammation and\/or dysfunction of the nasal mucosa. It is an umbrella entity that includes many different subtypes, several of which escape of complete characterization. Rhinitis is considered as a pathologic condition with considerable morbidity and financial burden on health care systems worldwide. Its economic impact is further emphasized by the fact that it represents a risk factor for other conditions such as sinusitis, asthma, learning disabilities, behavioral changes, and psychological impairment. Rhinitis may be associated with many etiologic triggers such as infections, immediate-type allergic responses, inhaled irritants, medications, hormonal disturbances, and neural system dysfunction. It is basically classified into three major clinical phenotypes: allergic rhinitis (AR), infectious rhinitis, and non-allergic, non-infectious rhinitis (NAR). However, this subdivision may be considered as an oversimplification because a combined (mixed) phenotype exists in many individuals and different endotypes of rhinitis subgroups are overlapping. Due to the variety of pathophysiologic mechanisms (endotypes) and clinical symptoms (phenotypes), it is difficult to develop clear guidelines for diagnosis and treatment. This study aims to review the types of allergic and non-allergic rhinitis, providing a thorough analysis of the pathophysiological background, diagnostic approach, and main treatment options.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10143183","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T21:39:15Z","timestamp":1626730755000},"page":"3183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":110,"title":["Review of Rhinitis: Classification, Types, Pathophysiology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Georgia","family":"Liva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71500 Heraklion, Crete, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Karatzanis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71500 Heraklion, Crete, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Prokopakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71500 Heraklion, Crete, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12573","article-title":"Phenotypes and endotypes of rhinitis and their impact on management: A PRACTALL report","volume":"70","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.2500\/aap.2012.33.3603","article-title":"Burden of allergic rhinitis: Allergies in America, Latin America, and Asia \u2013Pacific adult surverys","volume":"33","author":"Meltzer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Proc."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"155","article-title":"Inadequate diagnosis of nonalergic rhinitis: Assessing the damage","volume":"24","author":"Ledford","year":"2003","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Proc."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"23","article-title":"Epidemiology of Rhinitis: Allergic and Nonallergic","volume":"19","author":"Settipane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. 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