{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T01:30:18Z","timestamp":1791595818413,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review of literature provides the latest evidence involving invasive and non-invasive uses of electrical stimulation therapies that assist in restoring functional abilities and the enhancement of quality of life in those with spinal cord injuries. The review includes neuromuscular electrical stimulation and functional electrical stimulation activities that promote improved body composition changes and increased muscular strength, which have been shown to improve abilities in activities of daily living. Recommendations for optimizing electrical stimulation parameters are also reported. Electrical stimulation is also used to enhance the skills of reaching, grasping, standing, and walking, among other activities of daily living. Additionally, we report on the use of invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation techniques targeting improved mobility, including standing, postural control, and assisted walking. We attempt to summarize the effects of epidural stimulation on cardiovascular performance and provide a mechanistic explanation to the current research findings. Future trends such as the combination of epidural stimulation and exoskeletal-assisted walking are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10225356","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T09:16:11Z","timestamp":1637140571000},"page":"5356","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Invasive and Non-Invasive Approaches of Electrical Stimulation to Improve Physical Functioning after Spinal Cord Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"David R.","family":"Dolbow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Therapy Department, William Carey University, Hattiesburg, MS 39401, USA"},{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, William Carey University, Hattiesburg, MS 39401, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9157-6034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashraf S.","family":"Gorgey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Injury and Disorders Center, Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, VA 23229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5072-3184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommy W.","family":"Sutor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Injury and Disorders Center, Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, VA 23229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8637-6759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vanesa","family":"Bochkezanian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiotherapy Department, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, College of Health Sciences, CQ University Rockhampton, Rockhampton, QLD 4702, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8336-8211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristin","family":"Musselman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1V7, Canada"},{"name":"KITE, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M4G 3V9, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aeu187","article-title":"Metabolic response to the stress of critical illness","volume":"113","author":"Preiser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. 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