{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T02:53:04Z","timestamp":1791946384950,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]],"date-time":"2022-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642032000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the most common cause of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in the United States. Risk factor modification, such as tight control of blood glucose, management of hypertension and hyperlipidemia, and the use of renin\u2013angiotensin\u2013aldosterone system (RAAS) blockade have been proven to help delay the progression of DKD. In recent years, new therapeutics including sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, endothelin antagonists, glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA), have provided additional treatment options for patients with DKD. This review discusses the various treatment options available to treat patients with diabetic kidney disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11020378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]],"date-time":"2022-01-13T10:57:37Z","timestamp":1642071457000},"page":"378","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":105,"title":["Therapeutic Advances in Diabetic Nephropathy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Hanny","family":"Sawaf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4320-7151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan J.","family":"Taliercio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georges","family":"Nakhoul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4494-966X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tushar J.","family":"Vachharajani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Mehdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kidney Medicine, Glickman Urological & Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United States Renal Data System (2017). USRDS 2018 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2017). IDF Diabetes Atlas, International Diabetes Federation."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15454","article-title":"The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and its suppression","volume":"33","author":"Ames","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.106081","article-title":"ACE inhibitor-mediated angioedema","volume":"78","author":"Montinaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198302173080709","article-title":"Captopril and renal autoregulation","volume":"308","author":"Blythe","year":"1983","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.293.6545.467","article-title":"Effect of captopril on kidney function in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with nephropathy","volume":"293","author":"Hommel","year":"1986","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.293.6545.471","article-title":"Beneficial effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition on renal function in patients with diabetic nephropathy","volume":"293","author":"Nyberg","year":"1986","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1159\/000184318","article-title":"Antiproteinuric effect of captopril in primary glomerular disease","volume":"46","author":"Lagrue","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1159\/000185584","article-title":"Captopril, an angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitor, decreases proteinuria in hypertensive patients with renal diseases","volume":"52","author":"Ikeda","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1987.174","article-title":"Reduction of proteinuria by angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition","volume":"32","author":"Heeg","year":"1987","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199311113292004","article-title":"The Effect of Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibition on Diabetic Nephropathy","volume":"329","author":"Lewis","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa011161","article-title":"Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy","volume":"345","author":"Brenner","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa011303","article-title":"Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes","volume":"345","author":"Lewis","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0801317","article-title":"Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events","volume":"358","author":"Yusuf","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.06.024","article-title":"Executive summary of the 2020 KDIGO Diabetes Management in CKD Guideline: Evidence-based advances in monitoring and treatment","volume":"98","author":"Caramori","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-1326.2011.01406.x","article-title":"Canagliflozin, a novel inhibitor of sodium glucose co-transporter 2, dose dependently reduces calculated renal threshold for glucose excretion and increases urinary glucose excretion in healthy subjects","volume":"13","author":"Sha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-1326.2012.01558.x","article-title":"Canagliflozin improves glycaemic control over 28 days in subjects with type 2 diabetes not optimally controlled on insulin","volume":"14","author":"Devineni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S165","DOI":"10.2337\/dcS15-3006","article-title":"SGLT2 Inhibitors and the Diabetic Kidney","volume":"39","author":"Fioretto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2013.451","article-title":"Sodium-glucose linked transporter-2 inhibitors: Potential for renoprotection beyond blood glucose lowering?","volume":"86","author":"Gilbert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14659","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71599-2","article-title":"Canagliflozin ameliorates renal oxidative stress and inflammation by stimulating AMPK-Akt-eNOS pathway in the isoprenaline-induced oxidative stress model","volume":"10","author":"Hasan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2016030278","article-title":"Canagliflozin Slows Progression of Renal Function Decline Independently of Glycemic Effects","volume":"28","author":"Heerspink","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-0330","article-title":"CV Protection in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME Trial: A \u201cThrifty Substrate\u201d Hypothesis","volume":"39","author":"Ferrannini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-0542","article-title":"Can a Shift in Fuel Energetics Explain the Beneficial Cardiorenal Outcomes in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME Study? A Unifying Hypothesis","volume":"39","author":"Mudaliar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2117","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1504720","article-title":"Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"373","author":"Zinman","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1611925","article-title":"Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"377","author":"Neal","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1811744","article-title":"Canagliflozin and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy","volume":"380","author":"Perkovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1812389","article-title":"Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"380","author":"Wiviott","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2024816","article-title":"Dapagliflozin in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"383","author":"Heerspink","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2022190","article-title":"Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure","volume":"383","author":"Packer","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2017.04.007","article-title":"EMPA-REG OUTCOME: The Nephrologist\u2019s Point of View","volume":"130","author":"Wanner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13987","article-title":"Dedicated kidney disease-focused outcome trials with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors: Lessons from CREDENCE and expectations from DAPA-HF, DAPA-CKD, and EMPA-KIDNEY","volume":"22","author":"Rhee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2014.236","article-title":"The potential for renoprotection with incretin-based drugs","volume":"86","author":"Tanaka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/379069a0","article-title":"A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding","volume":"379","author":"Turton","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2968","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.137.7.8770921","article-title":"Tissue distribution of messenger ribonucleic acid encoding the rat glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor","volume":"137","author":"Bullock","year":"1996","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2156","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.134.5.8156917","article-title":"Divergent tissue-specific and developmental expression of receptors for glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 in the mouse","volume":"134","author":"Campos","year":"1994","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2967","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1824","article-title":"Protective effects of GLP-1 on glomerular endothelium and its inhibition by PKC\u03b2 activation in diabetes","volume":"61","author":"Mima","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2012.03.002","article-title":"GLP-1 analog liraglutide protects against oxidative stress and albuminuria in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats via protein kinase A-mediated inhibition of renal NAD(P)H oxidases","volume":"61","author":"Hendarto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-010-2028-x","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist ameliorates renal injury through its anti-inflammatory action without lowering blood glucose level in a rat model of type 1 diabetes","volume":"54","author":"Kodera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1603827","article-title":"Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1607141","article-title":"Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30104-9","article-title":"Dulaglutide versus insulin glargine in patients with type 2 diabetes and moderate-to-severe chronic kidney disease (AWARD-7): A multicentre, open-label, randomised trial","volume":"6","author":"Tuttle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31149-3","article-title":"Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): A double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial","volume":"394","author":"Gerstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30249-9","article-title":"Cardiovascular, mortality, and kidney outcomes with GLP-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cardiovascular outcome trials","volume":"7","author":"Kristensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2108269","article-title":"Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Efpeglenatide in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"385","author":"Gerstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1509225","article-title":"Lixisenatide in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Acute Coronary Syndrome","volume":"373","author":"Pfeffer","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1612917","article-title":"Effects of Once-Weekly Exenatide on Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"377","author":"Holman","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32261-X","article-title":"Albiglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Harmony Outcomes): A double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial","volume":"392","author":"Hernandez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1901118","article-title":"Oral Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"381","author":"Husain","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"2221","article-title":"Semaglutide: Charting New Horizons in GLP-1 Analogue Outcome Studies","volume":"11","author":"Williams","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther. Res. Treat. Educ Diabetes Relat Disord"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpy120","article-title":"Mineralocorticoid Receptor and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"31","author":"Buonafine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"965","article-title":"The multifaceted mineralocorticoid receptor","volume":"4","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2011.05.005","article-title":"Central regulation of blood pressure by the mineralocorticoid receptor","volume":"350","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38911","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M103984200","article-title":"Alteration of cardiac and renal functions in transgenic mice overexpressing human mineralocorticoid receptor","volume":"276","author":"Isnard","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2012.352","article-title":"Spironolactone prevents chronic kidney disease caused by ischemic acute kidney injury","volume":"83","author":"Reyna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F78","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00077.2007","article-title":"Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury is prevented by the mineralocorticoid receptor blocker spironolactone","volume":"293","author":"Cruz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199909023411001","article-title":"The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators","volume":"341","author":"Pitt","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1009492","article-title":"Eplerenone in patients with systolic heart failure and mild symptoms","volume":"364","author":"Zannad","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000002187","article-title":"Effects of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in proteinuric kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"37","author":"Alexandrou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.04750908","article-title":"Aldosterone antagonists for preventing the progression of chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Navaneethan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp048144","article-title":"Treatment of heart failure with spironolactone\u2014Trial and tribulations","volume":"351","author":"McMurray","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0000000000000147","article-title":"Nonsteroidal antagonists of the mineralocorticoid receptor","volume":"24","author":"Kolkhof","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht187","article-title":"Safety and tolerability of the novel non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist BAY 94-8862 in patients with chronic heart failure and mild or moderate chronic kidney disease: A randomized, double-blind trial","volume":"34","author":"Pitt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.10081","article-title":"Effect of Finerenone on Albuminuria in Patients With Diabetic Nephropathy: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"314","author":"Bakris","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2025845","article-title":"Effect of Finerenone on Chronic Kidney Disease Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"383","author":"Bakris","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2252","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2110956","article-title":"Cardiovascular Events with Finerenone in Kidney Disease and Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"385","author":"Pitt","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.115.011833","article-title":"Endothelin","volume":"68","author":"Davenport","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharm. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1097\/00041552-199507000-00011","article-title":"Defining the role of endothelins in renal pathophysiology on the basis of selective and unselective endothelin receptor antagonist studies","volume":"4","author":"Benigni","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2009.02121.x","article-title":"Endothelin receptor selectivity in chronic kidney disease: Rationale and review of recent evidence","volume":"39","author":"Neuhofer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-6576.2008.01768.x","article-title":"The endothelin receptor antagonist tezosentan improves renal microcirculation in a porcine model of endotoxemic shock","volume":"52","author":"Fenhammar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013080830","article-title":"The endothelin antagonist atrasentan lowers residual albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy","volume":"25","author":"Coll","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009060593","article-title":"Avosentan for overt diabetic nephropathy","volume":"21","author":"Mann","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)30772-X","article-title":"Atrasentan and renal events in patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease (SONAR): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"393","author":"Heerspink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1307684","article-title":"Saxagliptin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"369","author":"Scirica","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.13772","article-title":"Effect of Linagliptin vs Glimepiride on Major Adverse Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: The CAROLINA Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"322","author":"Rosenstock","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfx377","article-title":"JAK1\/JAK2 inhibition by baricitinib in diabetic kidney disease: Results from a Phase 2 randomized controlled clinical trial","volume":"33","author":"Tuttle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1159\/000506634","article-title":"Diabetic Kidney Disease: Challenges, Advances, and Opportunities","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F1276","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00396.2014","article-title":"Targeting NADPH oxidase with a novel dual Nox1\/Nox4 inhibitor attenuates renal pathology in type 1 diabetes","volume":"308","author":"Gorin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2017.2","article-title":"APX-115, a first-in-class pan-NADPH oxidase (Nox) inhibitor, protects db\/db mice from renal injury","volume":"97","author":"Cha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.07.020","article-title":"Systemic Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1 Inhibition Modifies Renal Macrophages and Restores Glomerular Endothelial Glycocalyx and Barrier Function in Diabetic Nephropathy","volume":"187","author":"Boels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"307","article-title":"C-C motif-ligand 2 inhibition with emapticap pegol (NOX-E36) in type 2 diabetic patients with albuminuria","volume":"32","author":"Menne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfab045","article-title":"Precision medicine approaches for diabetic kidney disease: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"36","author":"Tye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/2\/378\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:39:35Z","timestamp":1760362775000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/2\/378"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm11020378"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm11020378","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]}}}