{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T20:41:22Z","timestamp":1790023282565,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,17]],"date-time":"2022-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the present article, we describe the normal structure of the peritoneum and review the mechanisms of peritoneal metastasis (PM) from gastric cancer (GC). The structure of the peritoneum was studied by a double-enzyme staining method using alkaline-phosphatase and 5\u2032-nucreotidase, scanning electron microscopy, and immunohistological methods. The fundamental structure consists of three layers, mesothelial cells and a basement membrane (layer 1), macula cribriformis (MC) (layer 2), and submesothelial connective tissue containing blood vessels and initial lymphatic vessels, attached to holes in the MC (layer 3). Macro molecules and macrophages migrate from mesothelial stomata to the initial lymphatic vessels through holes in the MC. These structures are characteristically found in the diaphragm, omentum, paracolic gutter, pelvic peritoneum, and falciform ligament. The first step of PM is spillage of cancer cells (peritoneal free cancer cells; PFCCs) into the peritoneal cavity from the serosal surface of the primary tumor or cancer cell contamination from lymphatic and blood vessels torn during surgical procedures. After PFCCs adhere to the peritoneal surface, PMs form by three processes, i.e., (1) trans-mesothelial metastasis, (2) trans-lymphatic metastasis, and (3) superficial growing metastasis. Because the intraperitoneal (IP) dose intensity is significantly higher when generated by IP chemotherapy than by systemic chemotherapy, IP chemotherapy has a great role in the treatment of PFCCs, superficial growing metastasis, trans-lymphatic metastasis and in the early stages of trans-mesothelial metastasis. However, an established trans-mesothelial metastasis has its own interstitial tissue and vasculature which generate high interstitial pressure. Accordingly, it is reasonable to treat established trans-mesothelial metastasis by bidirectional chemotherapy from both IP and systemic chemotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11020458","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,17]],"date-time":"2022-01-17T08:20:42Z","timestamp":1642407642000},"page":"458","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["The Development of Peritoneal Metastasis from Gastric Cancer and Rationale of Treatment According to the Mechanism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Yutaka","family":"Yonemura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NPO to Support Peritoneal Surface Malignancy Treatment, Asian School of Peritoneal Surface Malignancy Treatment, 510, Fukushima-Cho, Kyoto 600-8189, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kusatsu General Hospital, Kusatsu 525-8585, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haruaki","family":"Ishibashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akiyoshi","family":"Mizumoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kusatsu General Hospital, Kusatsu 525-8585, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gorou","family":"Tukiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Wakama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shouzou","family":"Sako","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nobuyuki","family":"Takao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kusatsu General Hospital, Kusatsu 525-8585, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toshiyuki","family":"Kitai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanji","family":"Katayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasuyuki","family":"Kamada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regional Cancer Therapy, Peritoneal Dissemination Center, Kishiwada Tokusyukai Hospital, Kishiwada 596-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keizou","family":"Taniguchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Mizonokuchi Hospital, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Kawasaki 213-8570, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9515-7286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daisuke","family":"Fujimoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Mizonokuchi Hospital, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Kawasaki 213-8570, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshio","family":"Endou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Research Resource Center, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa 922-1192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3516-3331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masahiro","family":"Miura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Oita Medical University, Kasama-Machi, Oita 879-5593, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0142(20000115)88:2<358::AID-CNCR16>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"Peritoneal carcinomatosis from non gynecologic malignancies: Results of the EVOCAPE a multicentric prospective study","volume":"88","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1186\/s12957-019-1761-y","article-title":"Issues on peritoneal metastasis of gastric cancer: An 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