{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T00:20:26Z","timestamp":1788049226633,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a systemic vasculitis with a direct and indirect increased risk of acute and chronic vascular events, affecting large and medium vessels, and responsible for most of the morbidity and mortality of this disease. We aimed in this review to provide an updated synthesis of knowledge regarding cardiovascular events observed in GCA. By definition, GCA patients are over 50 and often over 70 years old, and subsequently also present age-related cardiovascular risk factors. In addition, the systemic and vascular inflammation as well as glucocorticoids (GC) probably contribute to an accelerated atherosclerosis and to vascular changes leading to arterial stenoses and aortic dilations and\/or dissections. GCA-related ischemic complications, especially ophthalmologic events, stroke or myocardial infarcts are mostly observed within the first months after the diagnosis, being mainly linked to the vasculitic process. Conversely, aortic complications, including dilations or dissections, generally occur several months or years after the diagnosis, mainly in patients with large-vessel vasculitis. In these patients, other factors such as atherosclerosis, GC-related endothelial damage and vascular wall remodeling\/healing probably contribute to the vascular events. GCA management includes the detection and treatment of these previous and newly induced cardiovascular risk factors. Hence, the use of cardiovascular treatments (e.g., aspirin, anticoagulation, statins, anti-hypertensive treatments) should be evaluated individually. Aortic structural changes require regular morphologic evaluations, especially in patients with previous aortitis. The initial or secondary addition of immunosuppressants, especially tocilizumab, an anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, is discussed in patients with GCA-related cardiovascular complications and, more consensually, to limit GC-mediated comorbidities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11041005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T22:44:47Z","timestamp":1644965087000},"page":"1005","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["An Updated Review of Cardiovascular Events in Giant Cell Arteritis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Hubert","family":"de Boysson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Caen University Hospital, Avenue de la C\u00f4te de Nacre, 14000 Caen, France"},{"name":"Caen University-Normandie, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Achille","family":"Aouba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Caen University Hospital, Avenue de la C\u00f4te de Nacre, 14000 Caen, France"},{"name":"Caen University-Normandie, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"57","article-title":"The different clinical patterns of giant cell arteritis","volume":"37","author":"Liozon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra011913","article-title":"Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis","volume":"347","author":"Salvarani","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1002\/art.23577","article-title":"Aortic involvement in recent-onset giant cell (temporal) arteritis: A case-control prospective study using helical aortic computed tomodensitometric scan","volume":"59","author":"Agard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204572","article-title":"Positron emission tomography assessment of large vessel inflammation in patients with newly diagnosed, biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis: A prospective, case-control study","volume":"73","author":"Depetris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.revmed.2015.12.015","article-title":"Management of giant cell arteritis: Recommendations of the French Study Group for Large Vessel Vasculitis (GEFA)","volume":"37","author":"Bienvenu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Interne"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2017-212649","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice","volume":"77","author":"Dejaco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2019-215672","article-title":"2018 Update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis","volume":"79","author":"Hellmich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kev262","article-title":"Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in giant cell arteritis: A general population-based study","volume":"55","author":"Amiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"753","article-title":"Giant cell arteritis and vascular disease-risk factors and outcomes: A cohort study using UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.7326\/M12-3046","article-title":"Risk for cardiovascular disease early and late after a diagnosis of giant-cell arteritis: A cohort study","volume":"160","author":"Tomasson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5080","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab222","article-title":"Real-life analysis of the causes of death in patients consecutively followed for giant cell arteritis in a French centre of expertise","volume":"60","author":"Antonini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/key028","article-title":"Mortality causes and trends associated with giant cell arteritis: Analysis of the French national death certificate database (1980\u20132011)","volume":"57","author":"Aouba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Therkildsen, P., Nielsen, B.D., de Thurah, A., Hansen, I.T., Norgaard, M., and Hauge, E.M. (2021). All-cause and cause-specific mortality in patients with giant cell arteritis: A nationwide, population-based cohort study. Rheumatology.","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab507"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2021.03.032","article-title":"Cardiovascular events and the role of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic vasculitis","volume":"325","author":"Clifford","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.151024","article-title":"Which Patients with Giant Cell Arteritis Will Develop Cardiovascular or Cerebrovascular Disease? A Clinical Practice Research Datalink Study","volume":"43","author":"Robson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-122-7-199504010-00004","article-title":"Increased incidence of aortic aneurysm and dissection in giant cell (temporal) arteritis. A population-based study","volume":"122","author":"Evans","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204113","article-title":"The relative risk of aortic aneurysm in patients with giant cell arteritis compared with the general population of the UK","volume":"74","author":"Robson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Therkildsen, P., de Thurah, A., Nielsen, B.D., Hansen, I.T., Eldrup, N., Norgaard, M., and Hauge, E.M. (2021). Increased risk of thoracic aortic complications among patients with giant cell arteritis: A nationwide, population-based cohort study. Rheumatology.","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab871"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03921.x","article-title":"Translational mini-review series on immunology of vascular disease: Mechanisms of vascular inflammation and remodelling in systemic vasculitis","volume":"156","author":"Maugeri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2017.05.014","article-title":"Recent advances in our understanding of giant cell arteritis pathogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Samson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791099","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.791099","article-title":"Inflammatory Cell Composition and Immune-Related microRNA Signature of Temporal Artery Biopsies From Patients with Giant Cell Arteritis","volume":"12","author":"Bolha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2013.03.013","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease in autoimmune rheumatic diseases","volume":"12","author":"Hollan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/nrrheum.2012.14","article-title":"Accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with SLE--mechanisms and management","volume":"8","author":"Skaggs","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03885.x","article-title":"Translational mini-review series on immunology of vascular disease: Accelerated atherosclerosis in vasculitis","volume":"156","author":"Tervaert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2013.09.006","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis: How to lower the risk?","volume":"231","author":"Klop","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306301","article-title":"Endothelial Cell Dysfunction and the Pathobiology of Atherosclerosis","volume":"118","author":"Gimbrone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"74","article-title":"Steroid therapy improves endothelial function in patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis","volume":"33","author":"Llorca","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1111\/eci.12227","article-title":"Endothelial function and carotid intima-media thickness in giant-cell arteritis","volume":"44","author":"Hafner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1002\/art.23114","article-title":"Atherosclerosis in patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis","volume":"57","author":"Martin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1159\/000318566","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease in Cushing\u2019s syndrome: Heart versus vasculature","volume":"92","author":"Pivonello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pujades-Rodriguez, M., Morgan, A.W., Cubbon, R.M., and Wu, J. (2020). Dose-dependent oral glucocorticoid cardiovascular risks in people with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases: A population-based cohort study. PLoS Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.11.20034157"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacLeod, C., Hadoke, P.W.F., and Nixon, M. (2021). Glucocorticoids: Fuelling the Fire of Atherosclerosis or Therapeutic Extinguishers?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147622"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.161033","article-title":"Giant Cell Arteritis-related Stroke: A Retrospective Multicenter Case-control Study","volume":"44","author":"Liozon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2021.02.001","article-title":"Myocardial infarction during giant cell arteritis: A cohort study","volume":"89","author":"Greigert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.05.008","article-title":"Evaluating the Incidence of Arteritic Ischemic Optic Neuropathy and Other Causes of Vision Loss from Giant Cell Arteritis","volume":"123","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2019.09.008","article-title":"Characteristics and outcomes of patients with ophthalmologic involvement in giant-cell arteritis: A case-control study","volume":"50","author":"Dumont","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.23901","article-title":"Prevalence of Giant Cell Arteritis Relapse in Patients Treated With Glucocorticoids: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"72","author":"Mainbourg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102930","article-title":"Epidemiology of major relapse in giant cell arteritis: A study-level meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"Aussedat","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0b013e3181af4518","article-title":"Strokes at time of disease diagnosis in a series of 287 patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis","volume":"88","author":"Blanco","year":"2009","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"524","article-title":"The association of vascular risk factors with visual loss in giant cell arteritis","volume":"56","author":"Yates","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2016.07.005","article-title":"Cerebrovascular accident in patients with giant cell arteritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"46","author":"Ungprasert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2019.01.009","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in giant-cell arteritis: French retrospective study","volume":"99","author":"Pariente","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1097\/01.md.0000119761.27564.c9","article-title":"Risk factors for cranial ischemic complications in giant cell arteritis","volume":"83","author":"Nesher","year":"2004","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ken465","article-title":"Risk factors for severe cranial ischaemic events in an Italian population-based cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis","volume":"48","author":"Salvarani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2014-307614","article-title":"Stroke associated with giant cell arteritis: A population-based study","volume":"86","author":"Samson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3017","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-013-2814-0","article-title":"Characteristics of cerebrovascular accidents at time of diagnosis in a series of 98 patients with giant cell arteritis","volume":"33","author":"Zenone","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2021.10308","article-title":"Stroke secondary to giant-cell arteritis: A literature review","volume":"22","author":"Bajko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.15.5.790","article-title":"The natural history of hemispheric and brainstem infarction in Rochester, Minnesota","volume":"15","author":"Turney","year":"1984","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1024\/0301-1526.34.4.269","article-title":"Ultrasonographic and FDG-PET imaging in active giant cell arteritis of the carotid arteries","volume":"34","author":"Pfadenhauer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vasa"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soares, C., Costa, A., Santos, R., Abreu, P., Castro, P., and Azevedo, E. (2021). Clinical, Laboratory and Ultrasonographic Interrelations in Giant Cell Arteritis. J. Stroke Cereb. Dis., 30.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2021.105601"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1007\/s13760-020-01344-z","article-title":"Red flags for a concomitant giant cell arteritis in patients with vertebrobasilar stroke: A cross-sectional study and systematic review","volume":"120","author":"Elhfnawy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Belg."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.150143","article-title":"Severe Intracranial Involvement in Giant Cell Arteritis: 5 Cases and Literature Review","volume":"43","author":"Alsolaimani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"502","article-title":"Ischemic heart disease in patients from Northwest Spain with biopsy proven giant cell arteritis. A population based study","volume":"32","author":"Rubiera","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.22416","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk and acute coronary syndrome in giant cell arteritis: A population-based retrospective cohort study","volume":"67","author":"Udayakumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"98","article-title":"Incidence of cardiovascular events in giant cell arteritis: Preliminary results of a prospective double cohort study (GRACG)","volume":"27","author":"Duhaut","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Interne"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jccase.2017.05.008","article-title":"Coronary artery stenting in acute coronary syndrome associated with giant cell arteritis","volume":"16","author":"Armellin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cardiol. Cases"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2019.00181","article-title":"Editorial: Cardioimmunology: Inflammation and Immunity in Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"6","author":"Lazzerini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.090269","article-title":"Symptomatic lower extremity vasculitis in giant cell arteritis: A case series","volume":"36","author":"Kermani","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3522","DOI":"10.1002\/art.11353","article-title":"Incidence and predictors of large-artery complication (aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, and\/or large-artery stenosis) in patients with giant cell arteritis: A population-based study over 50 years","volume":"48","author":"Nuenninghoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.110566","article-title":"Involvement of the femoropopliteal arteries in giant cell arteritis: Clinical and color duplex sonography","volume":"39","author":"Czihal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0b013e318206af16","article-title":"Long-term follow-up of upper and lower extremity vasculitis related to giant cell arteritis: A series of 36 patients","volume":"90","author":"Assie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.12.005","article-title":"Giant cell arteritis restricted to the limb arteries: An overlooked clinical entity","volume":"14","author":"Berti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1097\/RHU.0000000000001051","article-title":"Vascular Presentation and Outcomes of Patients With Giant Cell Arteritis and Isolated Symptomatic Limb Involvement","volume":"26","author":"Espitia","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e290","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.119.026566","article-title":"Acute Lateral Medullary Infarct due to Giant Cell Arteritis: A Case Study","volume":"50","author":"Dardick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0b013e3181646118","article-title":"Mesenteric involvement in giant cell arteritis. An underrecognized complication? Analysis of a case series with clinicoanatomic correlation","volume":"87","author":"Scola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1097\/01.md.0000145366.40805.f8","article-title":"Aortic aneurysm and dissection in patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis from northwestern Spain: A population-based study","volume":"83","author":"Pineiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-83-6-806","article-title":"Large artery involvement in giant cell (temporal) arteritis","volume":"83","author":"Klein","year":"1975","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202408","article-title":"Large-vessel involvement in giant cell arteritis: A population-based cohort study of the incidence-trends and prognosis","volume":"72","author":"Kermani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3532","DOI":"10.1002\/art.11480","article-title":"Mortality of large-artery complication (aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, and\/or large-artery stenosis) in patients with giant cell arteritis: A population-based study over 50 years","volume":"48","author":"Nuenninghoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21699","article-title":"Repetitive 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in giant cell arteritis: A prospective study of 35 patients","volume":"55","author":"Blockmans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(99)00424-6","article-title":"Positron emission tomography in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: Evidence for inflammation of the aortic arch","volume":"108","author":"Blockmans","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ken119","article-title":"Relationship between fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in the large vessels and late aortic diameter in giant cell arteritis","volume":"47","author":"Blockmans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2017.11.029","article-title":"Large-vessel involvement and aortic dilation in giant-cell arteritis. A multicenter study of 549 patients","volume":"17","author":"Daumas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2019.05.011","article-title":"Different patterns and specific outcomes of large-vessel involvements in giant cell arteritis","volume":"103","author":"Liozon","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Mornac, D., Agard, C., Hardouin, J.B., Hamidou, M., Connault, J., Masseau, A., Espitia-Thibault, A., Artifoni, M., Ngohou, C., and Perrin, F. (2021). Risk factors for symptomatic vascular events in giant cell arteritis: A study of 254 patients with large-vessel imaging at diagnosis. Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1177\/1759720X211006967"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"S106","article-title":"Large-vessel involvement in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica","volume":"32","author":"Muratore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2021.03.001","article-title":"Giant cell arteritis-related aortic dissection: A multicenter retrospective study","volume":"51","author":"Espitia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-019-04808-7","article-title":"Role of positron emission tomography in the assessment of disease burden and risk of relapse in patients affected by giant cell arteritis","volume":"39","author":"Bellan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"1759720X211009029","article-title":"Large-vessel involvement is predictive of multiple relapses in giant cell arteritis","volume":"13","author":"Espitia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.181127","article-title":"Factors Associated with Relapse and Dependence on Glucocorticoids in Giant Cell Arteritis","volume":"47","author":"Dumont","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1097\/RHU.0000000000000381","article-title":"Predictors of Dissection in Aortic Aneurysms From Giant Cell Arteritis","volume":"22","author":"Kermani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Espitia, O., Blonz, G., Urbanski, G., Landron, C., Connault, J., Lavigne, C., Roblot, P., Maillot, F., Audemard-Verger, A., and Artifoni, M. (2021). Symptomatic aortitis at giant cell arteritis diagnosis: A prognostic factor of aortic event. Arthritis Res. Ther., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-020-02396-5"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2018.10.003","article-title":"Aortic dilatation in patients with large vessel vasculitis: A longitudinal case control study using PET\/CT","volume":"48","author":"Muratore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1002\/art.41774","article-title":"2021 American College of Rheumatology\/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis","volume":"73","author":"Maz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2022, January 06). Protocole National de Diagnostic et de Soins de l\u2019Art\u00e9rite \u00e0 Cellules G\u00e9antes. Available online: https:\/\/www.has-sante.fr\/upload\/docs\/application\/pdf\/2017-08\/pnds_-_arterite_a_cellules_geantes.pdf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kez672","article-title":"British Society for Rheumatology guideline on diagnosis and treatment of giant cell arteritis","volume":"59","author":"Mackie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1613849","article-title":"Trial of Tocilizumab in Giant-Cell Arteritis","volume":"377","author":"Stone","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stone, J.H., Han, J., Aringer, M., Blockmans, D., Brouwer, E., Cid, M., Dasgupta, B., Rech, J., Salvarani, C., and Spiera, R. (2021). Long-term effect of tocilizumab in patients with giant cell arteritis: Open-label extension phase of the Giant Cell Arteritis Actemra (GiACTA) trial. Lancet Rheumatol., 4.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(21)00038-2"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii11","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kex459","article-title":"Prevention of glucocorticoid morbidity in giant cell arteritis","volume":"57","author":"Buttgereit","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"98","article-title":"Glucocorticoid usage in giant cell arteritis over six decades (1950 to 2009)","volume":"33","author":"Chandran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3851","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab332","article-title":"Resolution of vascular inflammation in patients with new-onset giant cell arteritis: Data from the RIGA study","volume":"60","author":"Schonau","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2789","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22754","article-title":"Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: An individual patient data meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Mahr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.181222","article-title":"Effect of Treatment on Imaging, Clinical, and Serologic Assessments of Disease Activity in Large-vessel Vasculitis","volume":"47","author":"Banerjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4384","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa894","article-title":"Use of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to monitor tocilizumab effect on vascular inflammation in giant cell arteritis","volume":"60","author":"Quinn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-021-02529-4","article-title":"Assessment of the efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in patients over 80 years old with giant cell arteritis","volume":"23","author":"Blaison","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3306","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22141","article-title":"Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy in patients with giant cell arteritis","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1002\/art.20171","article-title":"Low-dose aspirin and prevention of cranial ischemic complications in giant cell arteritis","volume":"50","author":"Nesher","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"S57","article-title":"Impact of antiplatelet therapy in the development of severe ischemic complications and in the outcome of patients with giant cell arteritis","volume":"26","author":"Narvaez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.02.006","article-title":"Effect of antiplatelet\/anticoagulant therapy on severe ischemic complications in patients with giant cell arteritis: A cumulative meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Narvaez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/4\/1005\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:19:56Z","timestamp":1760134796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/4\/1005"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm11041005"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm11041005","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]}}}