{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:50:23Z","timestamp":1787028623035,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,21]],"date-time":"2022-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of the review was to present the state of knowledge about the respiratory pathology in former premature neonates (children that were born preterm\u2014before 37 weeks of gestation\u2014and are examined and evaluated after 40 weeks corrected age) other than chronic lung disease, in order to provide reasons for a respiratory follow-up program for this category of patients. After a search of the current evidence, we found that premature infants are prone to long-term respiratory consequences due to several reasons: development of the lung outside of the uterus, leading to dysmaturation of the structures, pulmonary pathology due to immaturity, infectious agents or mechanical ventilation and deficient control of breathing. The medium- to long-term respiratory consequences of being born before term are represented by an increased risk of respiratory infections (especially viral) during the first years of life, a risk of recurrent wheezing and asthma and a decrease in pulmonary volumes and airway flows. Late preterm infants have risks of pulmonary long-term consequences similar to other former premature infants. Due to all the above risks, premature neonates should be followed in an organized fashion, being examined at regular time intervals from discharge from the maternity hospital until adulthood\u2014this could lead to an early detection of the risks and preventive therapies in order to improve their prognosis and assure a normal and productive life. The difficulties related to establishing such programs are represented by the insufficient standardization of the data gathering forms, clinical examinations and lung function tests, but it is our belief that if more premature infants are followed, the experience will allow standards to be established in these fields and the methods of data gathering and evaluation to be unified.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11061746","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,21]],"date-time":"2022-03-21T13:24:59Z","timestamp":1647869099000},"page":"1746","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Respiratory Follow Up of the Premature Neonates\u2014Rationale and Practical Issues"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Raluca Daniela","family":"Bogdan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatrics Department, Medicover Hospital, Str. Pechea No. 8, Sector 1, 031056 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6381-7419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roxana Elena","family":"Bohiltea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bd Eroii Sanitari Nr 8, 050471 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adrian Ioan","family":"Toma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatology Department, Life Memorial Hospital, Calea Grivitei No. 365, Sector 1, 010719 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University \u201cTitu Maiorescu\u201d, Str. Gh Petrascu 67, Sector 3, 031593 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-2952","article-title":"Late-Preterm Infants: A population at Risk","volume":"120","author":"Engle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-14-279","article-title":"Long term follow up of high risk children: Who, why and how?","volume":"14","author":"Doyle","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Volpe, J.J. (2018). Neurodevelopmental Follow-Up. Neurology of the Newborn, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Volpe, J.J. (2018). Neural Tube Development. Neurology of the Newborn, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-016-2545-0","article-title":"Development of the lung","volume":"367","author":"Schittny","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Thoracic Society Documents (2004). Mechanisms and Limits of Induced Postnatal Lung Growth. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 170, 319\u2013343.","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200209-1062ST"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Volpe, J.J. (2018). Preterm Intraventricular Hemorrhage\/Post Hemorrhagic Hydrocephalus. Neurology of the Newborn, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Volpe, J.J. (2018). Encephalopathy of Prematurity Clinical-Neurological Features, Diagnosis, Imaging, Prognosis, Therapy. Neurology of the Newborn, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Gomella, T.L., Cunningham, M.D., Eyal, F.G., and Tuttle, D.J. (2020). Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Neonatology: Management, Procedures, On-Call Problems, Diseases and Drugs, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Gomella, T.L., Cunningham, M.D., Eyal, F.G., and Tuttle, D.J. (2020). Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn. Neonatology: Management, Procedures, On-Call Problems, Diseases and Drugs, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Remington, J.S., Klein, J.O., Wilson, C.B., Nizet, V., and Macdonaldo, Y.A. (2011). Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract. Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and the Newborn Infant, Elsevier. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Gomella, T.L., Cunningham, M.D., Eyal, F.G., and Tuttle, D.J. (2020). Pneumothorax. Neonatology: Management, Procedures, On-Call Problems, Diseases and Drugs, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201709-756FR","article-title":"Respiratory Phenotypes for Preterm Infants, Children and Adults: Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia and More","volume":"15","author":"Collaco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S1084-2756(02)00221-X","article-title":"Health and hospitalisations after discharge in extremely low birth weight infants","volume":"8","author":"Doyle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Semin. Neonatol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"527","article-title":"Rehospitalization for respiratory illness in infants of less than 32 weeks\u2019 gestation","volume":"88","author":"Cunningham","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)83417-1","article-title":"Hospitalization of very low birth weight children at school age","volume":"122","author":"McCormick","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24050","article-title":"Predicting healthcare outcomes in prematurely born infants using cluster analysis","volume":"53","author":"MacBean","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatric Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e60","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-0583","article-title":"Human Rhinoviruses in Severe Respiratory Disease in Very Low Birth Weight Infants","volume":"129","author":"Miller","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"9","article-title":"Airway Remodeling Factors during Early-Life Rhinovirus Infection and the Effect of Premature Birth","volume":"26","author":"XuChen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12346","article-title":"Rhinovirus-induced airway cytokines and respiratory morbidity in severely premature children","volume":"6","author":"Perez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268812001069","article-title":"Hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in preterm infants at <33 weeks gestation without bronchopulmonary dysplasia: The CASTOR study","volume":"141","author":"Gouyon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2013.02.022","article-title":"Epidemiological and genetic characteristics associated with the severity of acute viral bronchiolitis by respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"89","author":"Alvareza","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.25122\/jml-2019-0123","article-title":"Respiratory Outcome of the Former Premature Infants","volume":"12","author":"Bogdan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Life"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211917","article-title":"Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Recurrent Wheeze in Healthy Preterm Infants","volume":"368","author":"Blanken","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30055-9","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus prevention and asthma in healthy preterm infants: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"6","author":"Scheltema","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201609-1812OC","article-title":"Palivizumab Prophylaxis in Preterm Infants and Subsequent Recurrent Wheezing. Six-Year Follow-up Study","volume":"196","author":"Mochizuki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.05.026","article-title":"The effect of respiratory syncytial virus on subsequent recurrent wheezing in atopic and non-atopic children","volume":"126","author":"Rieger","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"63","article-title":"Should we use Palivizumab immunoprophylaxis for infants against nrespiratory syncytial virus?","volume":"7","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"\u2014A cost-utility analysis. J. Health Policy Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2019.03.001","article-title":"Long term follow-up of Palivizumab administration in children born at 29\u201332 weeks of gestation","volume":"150","author":"Hanna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Been, J.V., Lugtenberg, M.J., Smets, E., Van Schayck, C.P., Kramer, B.W., Mommers, M., and Sheikh, A. (2014). Preterm Birth and Childhood Wheezing Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001596"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"34","article-title":"Bronchial hyper-responsiveness after preterm birth","volume":"26","author":"Clemm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Paediatr. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2013.07.015","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: The earliest and perhaps the longest lasting obstructive lung disease in humans","volume":"89","author":"Carraro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"126","article-title":"Preterm Birth Affects the Risk of Developing Immune-Mediated Diseases","volume":"8","author":"Kopp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevImmunol.2016016606","article-title":"Antigen receptor-intrinsic non-self: The key to understanding regulatory lymphocyte-mediated idiotypic control of adaptive immune responses","volume":"36","author":"Lemke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1","article-title":"Unbalanced neonatal CD4CT-cell immunity","volume":"393","author":"Debock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e878","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2119","article-title":"T helper 1\/T helper 2 cytokine imbalance in respiratory syncytial virus infection is associated with increased endogenous plasma cortisol","volume":"117","author":"Pinto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2011.06.007","article-title":"Disaster-related prenatal maternal stress influences birth outcomes: Project Ice Storm","volume":"87","author":"Dancause","year":"2011","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4145","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI64240","article-title":"T2R38 taste receptor polymorphisms underlie susceptibility to upper respiratory infection","volume":"122","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3906\/sag-1511-37","article-title":"Wheezing, asthma, and atopy in premature infants at 2 years of age","volume":"47","author":"Kaya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Turk. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pagano, F., Conti, M.G., Boscarino, G., Pannucci, C., Dito, L., Regoli, D., Di Chiara, M., Battaglia, G., Prota, R., and Cinicola, B. (2021). Atopic Manifestations in Children Born Preterm: A Long-Term Observational Study. Children, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/children8100843"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-019-1594-4","article-title":"Early antibiotic exposure and development of asthma and allergic rhinitis in childhood","volume":"19","author":"Ni","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41372-018-0264-y","article-title":"Early inspired oxygen and intermittent hypoxemic events in extremely premature infants are associated with asthma medication use at 2 years of age","volume":"39","author":"Dylag","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"131","article-title":"Intermittent Hypoxia and Bronchial Hyperreactivity","volume":"19","author":"Raffay","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.11.025","article-title":"Neonatal hyperoxia promotes asthma-lik features through IL-33-dependent ILC2 responses","volume":"142","author":"Cheon","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201908-1590ST","article-title":"Standardization of Spirometry 2019 Update. An Official American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society Technical Statement","volume":"200","author":"Graham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-3003.2000.16f26.x","article-title":"On behalf of the ERS\/ATS Task Force on Standards for Infant Respiratory Function Testing: Tidal breath analysis for infant pulmonary function testing","volume":"16","author":"Bates","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Thoracic Society (2005). This Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, March 2005, and by the ERS Executive Committee, October 2005, Raised Volume Forced Expirations in Infants Guidelines for Current Practice. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 172, 1463\u20131471.","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200408-1141ST"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1159\/000083520","article-title":"Infant whole body plethysmography, Pediatric Pulmonary function Testing","volume":"33","author":"Gappa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Progr. Resp. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.01.17407650","article-title":"Assesment of a whole body plethysmograph using an infnt lung function model","volume":"17","author":"Reinmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. Resp. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24631","article-title":"Lung function and respiratory outcomes in teenage boys and girls born very prematurely","volume":"55","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23933","article-title":"Longitudinal assessment of lung function in extremely prematurely born children","volume":"53","author":"Lo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23919","article-title":"Lung function after extremely preterm birth\u2014A population-based cohort study (EXPRESS)","volume":"53","author":"Thunqvist","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e016868","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-016868","article-title":"Lung function at term in extremely preterm-born infants: A regional prospective cohort study","volume":"7","author":"Bentsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-021-01720-0","article-title":"Lung function trajectories in children with post-prematurity respiratory disease: Identifying risk factors for abnormal growth","volume":"22","author":"Levin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12981","article-title":"Improved lung function at age 6 in children born very preterm and fed extra protein post-discharge","volume":"30","author":"Toftlund","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-1131","article-title":"Late Preterm Infants: Near Term but Still in a Critical Developmental Time Period","volume":"132","author":"Kugeknab","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"CD004454","article-title":"Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth","volume":"3","author":"Roberts","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.10244","article-title":"Trends in care practices, morbidity, and mortality of extremely preterm neonates, 1993\u20132012","volume":"314","author":"Stoll","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-1381","article-title":"Respiratory Morbidity and Lung Function in Preterm Infants of 32 to 36 Weeks\u2019 Gestational Age","volume":"126","author":"Colin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1086\/512615","article-title":"Severe Human Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Caused by Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Influenza Virus Is Characterized by the Absence of Pulmonary Cytotoxic Lymphocyte Responses","volume":"195","author":"Welliver","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201211-2070OC","article-title":"Moderately Preterm Children Have More Respiratory Problems during Their First 5 Years of Life Than Children Born Full Term","volume":"187","author":"Vrijlandt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-017-2329-5","article-title":"Examining Early Childhood Health Outcomes of Children Born Late Preterm in Urban Manitoba","volume":"21","author":"Crockett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.07.083","article-title":"Respiratory health in adolescents born moderately late preterm in a community-bsaed cohort","volume":"203","author":"Vrijland","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.siny.2018.11.001","article-title":"Adult outcomes of being born late preterm or early term\u2014What do we know?","volume":"24","author":"Kajantie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1067\/mpd.2000.110531","article-title":"Rates of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection among children in Medicaid","volume":"137","author":"Boyce","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S193","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000144664.31888.53","article-title":"Identifying Risk Factors for Severe Respiratory Syncytial Virus Among Infants Born After 33 Through 35 Completed Weeks of Gestation. Different Methodologies Yield Consistent Findings","volume":"23","author":"Law","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ped. Inf. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000069765.43405.3b","article-title":"Risk factors for bronchiolitis associated deaths among infants in the United States","volume":"22","author":"Holman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-018-03309-0","article-title":"RSV hospitalisation in infancy increases the risk of recurrent wheeze at age 6 in preterm born children without atopic predisposition","volume":"178","author":"Korsten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1185\/03007990902929112","article-title":"Risk-Scoring Tool for respiratory syncytial virus prophylaxis in premature infants born at 33\u201335 completed weeks\u2019 gestational age in Canada","volume":"25","author":"Paes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002432","article-title":"Severe Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Preterm Infants and Later Onset of Asthma","volume":"38","author":"Jalink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatric Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pryhuber, G.S., Maitre, N.L., Ballard, R.A., Cifelli, D., Davis, S.D., Ellenberg, J.H., Greenberg, J.M., Kemp, J., Mariani, T.J., and Panitch, H. (2015). Prematurity and respiratory outcomes program (PROP); study protocol of a prospective multicentre study of respiratory outcomes of preterm infants in the United States. BMC Pediatrics, 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-015-0346-3"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1399","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-3557","article-title":"Validity of Bronchiolitis Outcome Measures","volume":"135","author":"Fernandes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.95.08030483","article-title":"International study of asthma and allergies in childhood (ISAAC): Rationale and methods","volume":"8","author":"Asher","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200607-883OC","article-title":"Standard reference for the six-minute-walk test in healthy children aged 7 to 16 years","volume":"176","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Gosselin, J., and Amiel-Tison, C.l. (2007). Evaluation Neurologique de la Naissante a 6 Ans, Masson."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12876","article-title":"Use of the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination in infants with cerebral palsy: A critical review of the literature","volume":"58","author":"Romeo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.163.7.2011060","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"163","author":"Jobe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Thoracic Society (2003). Statement on the Care of the Child with Chronic Lung Disease of Infancy and Childhood. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 168, 356\u2013396.","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.168.3.356"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201508-553OC","article-title":"Lung Function and Bronchial Hyperresponsiveness in Adults Born Prematurely. A Cohort Study","volume":"13","author":"Landry","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201412-2142PP","article-title":"Understanding the Short and Long-Term Outcomes of Prematurity and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"192","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.56.4.317","article-title":"Long term sequelae of broncopulmonary dysplasia (chronic lung disease of infancy)","volume":"56","author":"Eber","year":"2001","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2012.03.052","article-title":"The EPICure Study: Associations between Hemodynamics and Lung Function at 11 Years after Extremely Preterm Birth","volume":"161","author":"Bolton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Gomella, T.L., Cunningham, M.D., Eyal, F.G., and Tuttle, D.J. (2020). Gestational age and birth weight classification. Neonatology: Management, Procedures, On-Call Problems, Diseases and Drugs, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210016","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.0016-2021","article-title":"Multiple breath washout: Measuring early manifestations of lung pathology","volume":"17","author":"Stanojevic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breathe"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2008.101758","article-title":"Association of prematurity, lung disease and body size with lung volume and ventilation inhomogeneity in unsedated neonates: A multicentre study","volume":"64","author":"Hulskamp","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"w14483","article-title":"Inert gas washout: Background and application in various lung diseases","volume":"147","author":"Jakob","year":"2017","journal-title":"Swiss Med. Wkly."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Committee on Infectious Diseases and Bronchiolitis Guidelines Committee (2014). Updated Guidance for Palivizumab Prophylaxis Among Infants and Young Children at Increased Risk of Hospitalization for Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection. Pediatrics, 134, 415\u2013420.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-2783"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Rennie, J. (2012). Acute respiratory disease. Rennie and Roberton\u2019s Textbook of Neonatology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-5108(18)30754-1","article-title":"Long-Term Outcome of Preterm Infants with Respiratory Disease","volume":"14","author":"Saigal","year":"1987","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.64.2.277","article-title":"Transient tachypnoea of the newborn and asthma","volume":"64","author":"Shohat","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-31802006000200006","article-title":"Neonatal risk factors for respiratory morbidity during the first year of life among premature infants","volume":"124","author":"Dutra","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sao Paolo Med. J."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3233\/NPM-1473813","article-title":"Pneumotorax in neonates: Trends, Predictors and Outcomes","volume":"7","author":"Duong","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neonatal Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Karlsen, K. (2013). The S.T.A.B.L.E. Program, Learner Manual: Post-Resuscitation\/Pre-Transport Stabilisation Care of Sick Infants. Guidelines for Neonatal Healthcare Providers, American Academy of Pediatrics. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Polin, R., Fox, W.W., and Abman, S.H. (2011). Patophysiology of Apnea of Prematurity. Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, Elsevier. [4th ed.]."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/6\/1746\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:40:27Z","timestamp":1760136027000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/11\/6\/1746"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,21]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm11061746"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm11061746","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,21]]}}}