{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T15:52:08Z","timestamp":1789055528272,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,15]],"date-time":"2022-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655251200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Focal laryngeal dystonia (LD) is a rare, idiopathic disease affecting the laryngeal musculature with an unknown cause and clinically presented as adductor LD or rarely as abductor LD. The most effective treatment options include the injection of botulinum toxin (BoNT) into the affected laryngeal muscle. The aim of this narrative review is to summarize the patho-neuro-physiological and genetic background of LD, as well as the standard recommended therapy (BoNT) and pharmacological treatment options, and to discuss possible treatment perspectives using neuro-modulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and vibrotactile stimulation. The review will present two LD cases, patients with adductor and abductor LD, standard diagnostic procedure, treatments and achievement, and the results of cortical excitability mapping the primary motor cortex for the representation of the laryngeal muscles in the assessment of corticospinal and corticobulbar excitability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11123453","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]],"date-time":"2022-06-16T03:01:22Z","timestamp":1655348482000},"page":"3453","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Patho-Neurophysiological Basis and Treatment of Focal Laryngeal Dystonia: A Narrative Review and Two Case Reports Applying TMS over the Laryngeal Motor Cortex"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8516-9718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja","family":"Rogi\u0107 Vidakovi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Human and Experimental Neurophysiology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7056-6443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivana","family":"Gunja\u010da","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9316-5538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josipa","family":"Buki\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vana","family":"Ko\u0161ta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5825-8026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u0161ko","family":"\u0160oda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Processing, Analysis, and Advanced Diagnostics Research and Education Laboratory (SPAADREL), Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Konstantinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Braco","family":"Bo\u0161kovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irena","family":"Bili\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolina","family":"Re\u017ei\u0107 Mu\u017eini\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"41","article-title":"Focal magnetic excitation of frontal cortex activates laryngeal muscles in man","volume":"398","author":"Amassian","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. 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