{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T19:44:48Z","timestamp":1790192688031,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Kakenhi","award":["18K16934"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18K16934"]}]},{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Kakenhi","award":["21K16881"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21K16881"]}]},{"name":"Takeda Science Foundation","award":["18K16934"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18K16934"]}]},{"name":"Takeda Science Foundation","award":["21K16881"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21K16881"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: myopia prevalence is high among Japanese schoolchildren, but the underlying causes are unclear. Objective: To examine the distributions of ocular biometry and refraction and their associations with lifestyle variables among Japanese schoolchildren. Methods: This cross-sectional school-based study included 2140 children aged 3\u201314 years in Tokyo, Japan, and evaluated the distributions under non-cycloplegic conditions and the associated environmental factors. Results: The prevalence of spherical equivalent (SE) \u2264\u22120.75 diopter among preschoolers (aged 3\u20136 years), elementary school students (aged 6\u201311 years), and junior high school students (aged 12\u201314 years) was 49.7%, 72.4%, and 87.7%, respectively. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that the time spent using digital devices was associated positively with lens thickness (\u03b2 = 0.010; p &lt; 0.050) but not SE, axial length, or vitreous chamber depth. The time spent reading was associated negatively with lens thickness (\u03b2 = \u22120.012; p &lt; 0.050), SE (\u03b2 = \u22120.152; p &lt; 0.010), axial length (\u03b2 = 0.110; p &lt; 0.001), and vitreous chamber depth (\u03b2 = 0.110; p &lt; 0.001). Conclusions: The data indicated that almost half of preschoolers may be myopic. The association with the lens thickness differed depending on the type of near work performed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11154413","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T02:06:42Z","timestamp":1659319602000},"page":"4413","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Children in Tokyo Have a Long Sustained Axial Length from Age 3 Years: The Tokyo Myopia Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Tomoki","family":"Maruyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0344-1269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erisa","family":"Yotsukura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9533-7404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hidemasa","family":"Torii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiwako","family":"Mori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mikako","family":"Inokuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Center, Keio University, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama-shi 223-8521, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitsuaki","family":"Tokumura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Center, Keio University, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama-shi 223-8521, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Debabrata","family":"Hazra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamoru","family":"Ogawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2342-9550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akiko","family":"Hanyuda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8874-7111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kazuo","family":"Tsubota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Tsubota Laboratory, Inc., Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0016, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5457-2720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toshihide","family":"Kurihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"},{"name":"Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2892-9810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kazuno","family":"Negishi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","article-title":"Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050","volume":"123","author":"Holden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2015-307724","article-title":"Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: 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