{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T01:38:15Z","timestamp":1789609095741,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,18]],"date-time":"2022-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660780800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) of liver allograft transplantation was considered as anecdotal for many decades. However recently, AMR has gained clinical awareness as a potential cause of chronic liver injury, leading to liver allograft fibrosis and eventual graft failure. (1) Methods: Literature on chronic AMR (cAMR) in pediatric post-liver transplant patients was reviewed for epidemiologic data, physiopathology, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. (2) Results: Accurate incidence of cAMR in pediatric liver transplantation remains unknown. Diagnostic criteria of cAMR were suggested by the Banff Working Group in 2016 and are based on standardized histopathological findings, C4d staining pattern, associated with the presence of donor-specific antibodies (DSA). Physio-pathological mechanisms are not clear for the technically difficult-to-obtain animal models reproducing cAMR. Treatment protocols are not established, being limited to case reports and case series, based on experience in ABO incompatible transplantation and kidney transplantation. Immunosuppression compliance with adequate dose adjustment may prevent cAMR. Conversion of Cyclosporine to Tacrolimus may improve pathological findings if treated in early phase. The association of steroids, Mycophenolate Mofetil (MMF) and mTOR inhibitors have shown some synergistic effects. Second-line treatments such as intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and plasma exchange may decrease antibody titers based on ABO incompatible transplant protocols. The use of anti-CD20 (Rituximab) and proteasome inhibitors (Bortezomib) is controversial due to the lack of qualified studies. Therefore, multicenter randomized trials are needed to establish the best therapeutic strategy. In refractory cases, re-transplantation is the only treatment for allograft failure. (3) Conclusions: This literature review collects recent clinical, histopathological, and therapeutical advances of cAMR in liver allograft transplantation of pediatric patients. There are many physio-pathological aspects of cAMR to be clarified. Further efforts with multicenter prospective protocols to manage patients with cAMR are needed to improve its outcome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11164834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,18]],"date-time":"2022-08-18T23:28:41Z","timestamp":1660865321000},"page":"4834","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The New Challenge in Pediatric Liver Transplantation: Chronic Antibody-Mediated Rejection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3906-6560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena Yukie","family":"Uebayashi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4043-1070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hideaki","family":"Okajima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kanazawa Medical University Hospital, Kanazawa 920-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miki","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eri","family":"Ogawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatsuya","family":"Okamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hironori","family":"Haga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Etsurou","family":"Hatano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2587","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000003610","article-title":"Outcomes of Pediatric Liver Transplantation in Japan: A Report from the Registry of the Japanese Liver Transplantation Society","volume":"105","author":"Kasahara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2816","DOI":"10.1111\/ajt.13909","article-title":"2016 Comprehensive Update of the Banff Working Group on Liver Allograft Pathology: Introduction of Antibody-Mediated Rejection","volume":"16","author":"Demetris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. 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