{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T19:37:53Z","timestamp":1783453073540,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]],"date-time":"2023-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acute heart failure (AHF) is the most frequent cause of unplanned hospital admission in patients of &gt;65 years of age and it is associated with significantly increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Different AHF classification criteria have been proposed, mainly reflecting the clinical heterogeneity of the syndrome. Regardless of the underlying mechanism, peripheral and\/or pulmonary congestion is present in the vast majority of cases. Furthermore, a marked reduction in cardiac output with peripheral hypoperfusion may occur in most severe cases. Diagnosis is made on the basis of signs and symptoms, laboratory, and non-invasive tests. After exclusion of reversible causes, AHF therapeutic interventions mainly consist of intravenous (IV) diuretics and\/or vasodilators, tailored according to the initial hemodynamic status with the addition of inotropes\/vasopressors and mechanical circulatory support if needed. The aim of this review is to discuss current concepts on the diagnosis and management of AHF in order to guide daily clinical practice and to underline the unmet needs. Preventive strategies are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12030846","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]],"date-time":"2023-01-23T04:19:22Z","timestamp":1674447562000},"page":"846","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Acute Heart Failure: Diagnostic\u2013Therapeutic Pathways and Preventive Strategies\u2014A Real-World Clinician\u2019s Guide"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Ciro","family":"Mauro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Chianese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosangela","family":"Cocchia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7033-2145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Arcopinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Auciello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Aid\u2014Short Intensive Observation Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0080-9948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Capone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariano","family":"Carafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emergency Medicine Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2190-7010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreina","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Cardiology, Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Caruso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Long-Term Care Division, Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4143-1678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rossana","family":"Castaldo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico SYNLAB SDN, Via Emanuele Gianturco, 113, 80143 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7796-6298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodolfo","family":"Citro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heart Department, University Hospital of Salerno, 84131 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Crisci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9698-9145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonello","family":"D\u2019Andrea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Umberto I Hospital Nocera Inferiore, 84014 Nocera, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6729-374X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"D\u2019Assante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"D\u2019Avino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Long-Term Care Division, Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1659-0880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Ferrara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heart Department, University Hospital of Salerno, 84131 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Frangiosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post Operative Intensive Care Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico","family":"Galzerano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heart Centre, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Maffei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post Operative Intensive Care Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto Maria","family":"Marra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rahul M.","family":"Mehta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ProMedica Monroe Regional Hospital, Monroe, MI 48162, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rajendra H.","family":"Mehta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Duke Clinical Research Institute, 300 W Morgan St., Durham, NC 27701, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiorella","family":"Paladino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Aid\u2014Short Intensive Observation Division, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4880-5679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brigida","family":"Ranieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico SYNLAB SDN, Via Emanuele Gianturco, 113, 80143 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6490-7694","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica","family":"Franzese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico SYNLAB SDN, Via Emanuele Gianturco, 113, 80143 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8291-9517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Limongelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Cardiology, Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Rega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health University \u201cFederico II\u201d of Naples, Via Sergio Pansini, 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luigia","family":"Romano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General and Emergency Radiology, Antonio Cardarelli Hospital, Via Cardarelli, 9, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2352-2103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Salzano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico SYNLAB SDN, Via Emanuele Gianturco, 113, 80143 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Sepe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical Nursing and Rehabilitation Service (SITR) Department, Cardarelli Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Vriz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heart Centre, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raffaele","family":"Izzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0579-3279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Cademartiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Fondazione G. Monasterio CNR-Regione Toscana, Via Moruzzi, 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Cittadini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2769-9950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Bossone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health University \u201cFederico II\u201d of Naples, Via Sergio Pansini, 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.2115","article-title":"Universal definition and classification of heart failure: A report of the Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, Japanese Heart Failure Society and Writing Committee of the Universal Definition of Heart Failure: Endorsed by the Canadian Heart Failure Society, Heart Failure Association of India, Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand, and Chinese Heart Failure Association","volume":"23","author":"Bozkurt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. 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