{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T11:51:14Z","timestamp":1790423474794,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]],"date-time":"2023-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009619","name":"Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21fk0108486h0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21fk0108486h0001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009619","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Delirium is characterized by an acutely altered mental status accompanied by reductions in cognitive function and attention. Delirium in septic patients, termed sepsis-associated delirium (SAD), differs in several specific aspects from the other types of delirium that are typically encountered in intensive care units. Since sepsis and delirium are both closely associated with increased morbidity and mortality, it is important to not only prevent but also promptly diagnose and treat SAD. We herein reviewed the etiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of SAD, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related delirium. Delirium by itself not only worsens long-term prognosis, but it is also regarded as an important factor affecting the outcome of post-intensive care syndrome. In COVID-19 patients, the difficulties associated with adequately implementing the ABCDEF bundle (Assess, prevent, and manage pain; Both spontaneous awakening and breathing trials: Choice of analgesia and sedation; Delirium assess, prevent, and manage; Early mobility and exercise; Family engagement\/empowerment) and the need for social isolation are issues that require the development of conventional care for SAD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12041273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]],"date-time":"2023-02-06T03:34:30Z","timestamp":1675654470000},"page":"1273","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Sepsis-Associated Delirium: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9162-0242","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rina","family":"Tokuda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tajima Emergency and Critical Care Medical Center, Toyooka Public Hospital, Hyogo 668-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8481-0294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kensuke","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Teikyo University Hospital, Tokyo 173-8606, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yudai","family":"Takatani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primary Care and Emergency Medicine, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0829-7342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chie","family":"Tanaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Nippon Medical School Tama Nagayama Hospital, Tokyo 206-8512, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1072-7089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yutaka","family":"Kondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Juntendo University Urayasu Hospital, Chiba 279-0021, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8544-2569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroyuki","family":"Ohbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Health Economics, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Kamijo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shinshu University Hospital, Nagano 390-0802, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kosuke","family":"Otake","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Center, Nippon Medical School Musashikosugi Hospital, Kanagawa 211-8533, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atsuo","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Iizuka City Hospital, Fukuoka 820-8505, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4862-5646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroyasu","family":"Ishikura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Kawazoe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Critical Care Center, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagi 983-0045, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"J-STAD (Japan Sepsis Treatment and Diagnosis) Study Group","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000863","article-title":"Association of Cumulative Dose of Haloperidol with Next-Day Delirium in Older Medical ICU Patients","volume":"43","author":"Pisani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S81","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e3182a16946","article-title":"Cognitive dysfunction in ICU patients: Risk factors, predictors, and rehabilitation interventions","volume":"41","author":"Wilcox","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4860-7","article-title":"The intensive care delirium research agenda: A multinational, interprofessional perspective","volume":"43","author":"Pandharipande","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atterton, B., Paulino, M.C., Povoa, P., and Martin-Loeches, I. (2020). Sepsis Associated Delirium. Medicina, 56.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina56050240"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.0287","article-title":"The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3)","volume":"315","author":"Singer","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.2004.tb00494.x","article-title":"The Neuropathology of Septic Shock","volume":"14","author":"Sharshar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4807-z","article-title":"Potentially modifiable factors contributing to sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"43","author":"Sonneville","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"h2538","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.h2538","article-title":"Outcome of delirium in critically ill patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"350","author":"Salluh","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/aft148","article-title":"New horizons in the pathogenesis, assessment and management of delirium","volume":"42","author":"Maclullich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afaa040","article-title":"The consistent burden in published estimates of delirium occurrence in medical inpatients over four decades: A systematic review and meta-analysis study","volume":"49","author":"Gibb","year":"2020","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007808","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-007808","article-title":"Observational, longitudinal study of delirium in consecutive unselected acute medical admissions: Age-specific rates and associated factors, mortality and re-admission","volume":"5","author":"Pendlebury","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.4037\/ajcc2017263","article-title":"Subsyndromal Delirium and Institutionalization Among Patients with Critical Illness","volume":"26","author":"Brummel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30062-6","article-title":"Clinical phenotypes of delirium during critical illness and severity of subsequent long-term cognitive impairment: A prospective cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Girard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afab103","article-title":"Prevalence, incidence and mortality of delirium in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"50","author":"Shao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4823","article-title":"Delirium pathophysiology: An updated hypothesis of the etiology of acute brain failure","volume":"33","author":"Maldonado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S329","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5545.224473","article-title":"Clinical Practice Guidelines for Management of Delirium in Elderly","volume":"60","author":"Grover","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian, J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/63.7.764","article-title":"Cholinergic Deficiency Hypothesis in Delirium: A Synthesis of Current Evidence","volume":"63","author":"Hshieh","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra052321","article-title":"Delirium in Older Persons","volume":"354","author":"Kwatra","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/61.12.1277","article-title":"Elucidating the Pathophysiology of Delirium and the Interrelationship of Delirium and Dementia","volume":"61","author":"Inouye","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-020-00223-4","article-title":"Delirium","volume":"6","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2015.09.002","article-title":"Postoperative delirium: Age and low functional reserve as independent risk factors","volume":"33","author":"Pinho","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Anesthesia"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2006.11.013","article-title":"Cytokines and acute phase response in delirium","volume":"62","author":"Korevaar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/62.4.420","article-title":"Cytokines and C-Reactive Protein Production in Hip-Fracture-Operated Elderly Patients","volume":"62","author":"Beloosesky","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2000.tb02603.x","article-title":"Cognitive Decline Is Associated with Systemic Oxidative Stress: The EVA Study","volume":"48","author":"Berr","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2008.05.019","article-title":"Unravelling the pathophysiology of delirium: A focus on the role of aberrant stress responses","volume":"65","author":"MacLullich","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2013.09.005","article-title":"Neuropathogenesis of delirium: Review of current etiologic theories and common pathways","volume":"21","author":"Maldonado","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00032.2011","article-title":"Control of Sleep and Wakefulness","volume":"92","author":"Brown","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, H.Y., Wickel, J., Brunkhorst, F.M., and Geis, C. (2020). Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy: From Delirium to Dementia?. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030703"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1186\/cc9254","article-title":"Septic-associated encephalopathy-everything starts at a microlevel","volume":"14","author":"Sharshar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-007-0622-2","article-title":"Sepsis-associated delirium","volume":"33","author":"Ebersoldt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1996.03530300054040","article-title":"The spectrum of septic encephalopathy. Definitions, etiologies, and mortalities","volume":"275","author":"Eidelman","year":"1996","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"828","article-title":"Epidemiological features and risk factors of sepsis-associated encephalopathy in intensive care unit patients: 2008\u20132011","volume":"125","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iccn.2020.102844","article-title":"Risk factors and outcomes of sepsis-associated delirium in intensive care unit patients: A secondary data analysis","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Crit. Care Nurs."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-009-1466-8","article-title":"Occurrence of delirium is severely underestimated in the ICU during daily care","volume":"35","author":"Spronk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-022-03931-3","article-title":"Distribution of delirium motor subtypes in the intensive care unit: A systematic scoping review","volume":"26","author":"Weihe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000292011.93074.82","article-title":"Use of a validated delirium assessment tool improves the ability of physicians to identify delirium in medical intensive care unit patients","volume":"35","author":"Devlin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e825","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000003299","article-title":"Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Pain, Agitation\/Sedation, Delirium, Immobility, and Sleep Disruption in Adult Patients in the ICU","volume":"46","author":"Devlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2020.103782","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of the CAM-ICU and ICDSC in detecting intensive care unit delirium: A bivariate meta-analysis","volume":"113","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002368","article-title":"The Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU-7 Delirium Severity Scale: A Novel Delirium Severity Instrument for Use in the ICU","volume":"45","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiegand, T.L.T., R\u00e9mi, J., and Dimitriadis, K. (2022). Electroencephalography in delirium assessment: A scoping review. BMC Neurol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-022-02557-w"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2020). Non-Invasive Eye Tracking for the Diagnosis of Delirium on ICU (CONfuSED)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000625","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Delirium in the ICU","volume":"43","author":"Zaal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31637-3","article-title":"Early, goal-directed mobilisation in the surgical intensive care unit: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"388","author":"Schaller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60658-9","article-title":"Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"373","author":"Schweickert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000003482","article-title":"Caring for Critically Ill Patients with the ABCDEF Bundle: Results of the ICU Liberation Collaborative in Over 15,000 Adults","volume":"47","author":"Pun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2021.12.015","article-title":"Effectiveness of combined non-pharmacological interventions in the prevention of delirium in critically ill patients: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"68","author":"Faustino","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-021-06490-3","article-title":"Pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to prevent delirium in critically ill patients: A systematic review and network meta-analysis","volume":"47","author":"Burry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.2088","article-title":"Effect of Dexmedetomidine on Mortality and Ventilator-Free Days in Patients Requiring Mechanical Ventilation with Sepsis: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"317","author":"Kawazoe","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2024922","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine or Propofol for Sedation in Mechanically Ventilated Adults with Sepsis","volume":"384","author":"Hughes","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.12.020","article-title":"Melatonin for delirium prevention in hospitalized patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"133","author":"Khaing","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(16)00005-9","article-title":"Rosuvastatin versus placebo for delirium in intensive care and subsequent cognitive impairment in patients with sepsis-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: An ancillary study to a randomised controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Needham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.2707","article-title":"Effect of Dexmedetomidine Added to Standard Care on Ventilator-Free Time in Patients with Agitated Delirium: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"315","author":"Reade","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/ams2.415","article-title":"Post-intensive care syndrome: Its pathophysiology, prevention, and future directions","volume":"6","author":"Inoue","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acute Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1301372","article-title":"Long-Term Cognitive Impairment after Critical Illness","volume":"369","author":"Pandharipande","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.M., and Fan, E. (2012). ICU-acquired weakness: What is preventing its rehabilitation in critically ill patients?. BMC Med., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-10-115"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-018-0408-4","article-title":"Association of intensive care unit delirium with sleep disturbance and functional disability after critical illness: An observational cohort study","volume":"8","author":"Altman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70051-7","article-title":"Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and functional disability in survivors of critical illness in the BRAIN-ICU study: A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"2","author":"Jackson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bieber, E.D., Philbrick, K.L., Shapiro, J.B., and Karnatovskaia, L.V. (2022). Psychiatry\u2019s role in the prevention of post-intensive care mental health impairment: Stakeholder survey. BMC Psychiatry, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-022-03855-w"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-02882-x","article-title":"COVID-19: ICU delirium management during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic","volume":"24","author":"Kotfis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30552-X","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for delirium in critically ill patients with COVID-19 (COVID-D): A multicentre cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Pun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045125320942703","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125320942703","article-title":"Pharmacological treatment of hyperactive delirium in people with COVID-19: Rethinking conventional approaches","volume":"10","author":"Ostuzzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2020.110350","article-title":"A rapid review of the pathoetiology, presentation, and management of delirium in adults with COVID-19","volume":"141","author":"Hawkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2029540","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.29540","article-title":"Delirium in Older Patients With COVID-19 Presenting to the Emergency Department","volume":"3","author":"Kennedy","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2440","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.16803","article-title":"Delirium and Adverse Outcomes in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19","volume":"68","author":"Garcez","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/s40560-020-00511-x","article-title":"Association between visitation restriction during the COVID-19 pandemic and delirium incidence among emergency admission patients: A single-center retrospective observational cohort study in Japan","volume":"8","author":"Kandori","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/4\/1273\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:25:21Z","timestamp":1760120721000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/4\/1273"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm12041273"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm12041273","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]]}}}