{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T07:10:01Z","timestamp":1783667401952,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]],"date-time":"2023-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a phenomenon observed following the predominantly long-term use of dopamine receptor blockers (antipsychotics) widely used in psychiatry. TD is a group of involuntary, irregular hyperkinetic movements, mainly in the muscles of the face, eyelid, lips, tongue, and cheeks, and less frequently in the limbs, neck, pelvis, and trunk. In some patients, TD takes on an extremely severe form, massively disrupting functioning and, moreover, causing stigmatization and suffering. Deep brain stimulation (DBS), a method used, among others, in Parkinson\u2019s disease, is also an effective treatment for TD and often becomes a method of last resort, especially in severe, drug-resistant forms. The group of TD patients who have undergone DBS is still very limited. The procedure is relatively new in TD, so the available reliable clinical studies are few and consist mainly of case reports. Unilateral and bilateral stimulation of two sites has proven efficacy in TD treatment. Most authors describe stimulation of the globus pallidus internus (GPi); less frequent descriptions involve the subthalamic nucleus (STN). In the present paper, we provide up-to-date information on the stimulation of both mentioned brain areas. We also compare the efficacy of the two methods by comparing the two available studies that included the largest groups of patients. Although GPi stimulation is more frequently described in literature, our analysis indicates comparable results (reduction of involuntary movements) with STN DBS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12051868","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]],"date-time":"2023-02-27T02:04:11Z","timestamp":1677463451000},"page":"1868","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Deep Brain Stimulation in the Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Adrianna","family":"Szczakowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Teaching Hospital, Medical University of Lodz, 92-213 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4430-6488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata","family":"Gabryelska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sleep Medicine and Metabolic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, 92-215 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1398-3117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oliwia","family":"Gawlik-Kotelnicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Affective and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, 92-216 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8559-1078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominik","family":"Strzelecki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Affective and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, 92-216 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9574","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1196-12.2012","article-title":"Contribution of decreased serotonin release to the antidyskinetic effects of deep brain stimulation in a rodent model of tardive dyskinesia: Comparison of the subthalamic and entopeduncular nuclei","volume":"32","author":"Creed","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. 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