{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T19:57:41Z","timestamp":1790798261050,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]],"date-time":"2023-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693699200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute at the National Institutes of Health"},{"name":"The Fundaci\u00f3n para la Salud y la Educaci\u00f3n Salvador Zubir\u00e1n and Asociaci\u00f3n ALE"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide and the risk of a major cardiovascular event is highest among those with established disease. Ongoing management of these patients relies on the accurate assessment of their response to any prescribed therapy, and their residual risk, in order to optimize treatment. Recent international guidelines and position statements concur that the plasma concentration of apolipoprotein B (apoB) is the most accurate measure of lipoprotein associated ASCVD risk. This is especially true for the growing number of individuals with diabetes, obesity, or the metabolic syndrome, and those on statin therapy. Most guidelines, however, continue to promote LDL-C as the primary risk marker due to uncertainty as to whether the greater accuracy of apoB is sufficient to warrant a paradigm shift. Recommendations regarding apoB measurement vary, and the information provided on how to interpret apoB results is sometimes insufficient, particularly for non-lipid specialists. Misinformation regarding the reliability of the assays is also frequently repeated despite its equivalent or better standardization than many other diagnostic assays. Thus, demand for apoB testing is relatively low, which means there is little incentive to increase its availability or reduce its cost. In this review, we examine the results of recent clinical outcomes studies and meta-analyses on the relative values of apoB, LDL-C, and non-HDL-C as markers of ASCVD risk. Although there is seemingly minimal difference among these markers when only population-based metrics are considered, it is evident from our analysis that, from a personalized or precision medicine standpoint, many individuals would benefit, at a negligible total cost, if apoB measurement were better integrated into the diagnosis and treatment of ASCVD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12175737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,4]],"date-time":"2023-09-04T02:43:20Z","timestamp":1693795400000},"page":"5737","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Use of Apolipoprotein B in the Era of Precision Medicine: Time for a Paradigm Change?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0278-4094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justine","family":"Cole","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lipoprotein Metabolism Laboratory, Translational Vascular Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4274-3585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Zubir\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lipoprotein Metabolism Laboratory, Translational Vascular Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9479-0741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Wolska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lipoprotein Metabolism Laboratory, Translational Vascular Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9113-2604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ishwarlal","family":"Jialal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology and Internal Medicine, University of California-Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Remaley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lipoprotein Metabolism Laboratory, Translational Vascular Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301226","article-title":"The decline and rise of coronary heart disease: Understanding public health catastrophism","volume":"103","author":"Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.2.2.161","article-title":"Blood lipids and human atherosclerosis","volume":"2","author":"Gofman","year":"1950","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.49.9.1120","article-title":"Prevention and control of chronic disease. I. Cardiovascular disease\u2014With particular attention to atherosclerosis","volume":"49","author":"Olson","year":"1959","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health Nation\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.71.3.788","article-title":"Familial hypercholesterolemia: Defective binding of lipoproteins to cultured fibroblasts associated with impaired regulation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity","volume":"71","author":"Brown","year":"1974","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1988.00380010040006","article-title":"Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. The Expert Panel","volume":"148","author":"Goodman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2008.118356","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B and cardiovascular disease risk: Position statement from the AACC Lipoproteins and Vascular Diseases Division Working Group on Best Practices","volume":"55","author":"Contois","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2007.10.001","article-title":"LDL Particle Number and Risk of Future Cardiovascular Disease in the Framingham Offspring Study\u2014Implications for LDL Management","volume":"1","author":"Cromwell","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000022015.97341.3A","article-title":"Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of lipoproteins and risk of coronary heart disease in the cardiovascular health study","volume":"22","author":"Kuller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2021.5083","article-title":"Association of Apolipoprotein B-Containing Lipoproteins and Risk of Myocardial Infarction in Individuals with and without Atherosclerosis: Distinguishing between Particle Concentration, Type, and Content","volume":"7","author":"Marston","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.565135","article-title":"Low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein particle subclasses predict coronary events and are favorably changed by gemfibrozil therapy in the Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial","volume":"113","author":"Otvos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2012.196733","article-title":"Association of apolipoprotein B and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-derived LDL particle number with outcomes in 25 clinical studies: Assessment by the AACC Lipoprotein and Vascular Diseases Division Working Group on Best Practices","volume":"59","author":"Cole","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.46.7.1207","article-title":"Optimization of glycemic control by insulin therapy decreases the proportion of small dense LDL particles in diabetic patients","volume":"46","author":"Caixas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.22.5.812","article-title":"Apolipoprotein(B) identifies dyslipidemic phenotypes associated with cardiovascular risk in normocholesterolemic type 2 diabetic patients","volume":"22","author":"Wagner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"421","article-title":"Statins do not decrease small, dense low-density lipoprotein","volume":"37","author":"Choi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tex. Heart Inst. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)41629-3","article-title":"Discrete subspecies of human low density lipoproteins are heterogeneous in their interaction with the cellular LDL receptor","volume":"32","author":"Nigon","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2007.12.006","article-title":"Differential response of cholesterol and particle measures of atherogenic lipoproteins to LDL-lowering therapy: Implications for clinical practice","volume":"2","author":"Sniderman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjca.2021.03.016","article-title":"2021 Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults","volume":"37","author":"Pearson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: Lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"e1082","article-title":"2018 AHA\/ACC\/AACVPR\/AAPA\/ABC\/ACPM\/ADA\/AGS\/APhA\/ASPC\/NLA\/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: A Report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines","volume":"139","author":"Grundy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Rifai, N. (2022). Tietz Textbook of Laboratory Medicine, Elsevier\u2014OHCE. [7th ed.]. Elsevier, eBooks+."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)37199-6","article-title":"A single copy of apolipoprotein B-48 is present on the human chylomicron remnant","volume":"38","author":"Phillips","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)38425-X","article-title":"Plasma very low density lipoproteins contain a single molecule of apolipoprotein B","volume":"29","author":"Elovson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1038\/323734a0","article-title":"Complete protein sequence and identification of structural domains of human apolipoprotein B","volume":"323","author":"Knott","year":"1986","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2022.02.009","article-title":"Lipoprotein Assessment in the twenty-first Century","volume":"51","author":"Lucero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3659919","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B-48 is the product of a messenger RNA with an organ-specific in-frame stop codon","volume":"238","author":"Chen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R200004-JLR200","article-title":"Metabolic origins and clinical significance of LDL heterogeneity","volume":"43","author":"Berneis","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18029","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M114.629865","article-title":"A Pressure-dependent Model for the Regulation of Lipoprotein Lipase by Apolipoprotein C-II","volume":"290","author":"Meyers","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2017.10.025","article-title":"Apolipoprotein C-II: New findings related to genetics, biochemistry, and role in triglyceride metabolism","volume":"267","author":"Wolska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2760(96)00041-0","article-title":"Chylomicron assembly and catabolism: Role of apolipoproteins and receptors","volume":"1300","author":"Hussain","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2011.04.018","article-title":"Postprandial lipoprotein metabolism: VLDL vs chylomicrons","volume":"412","author":"Nakajima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"William, W.E., Lori, J.S., Brett, H., and Roger, L. (2021). Handbook of Diagnostic Endocrinology, Elsevier\u2014Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)32551-7","article-title":"Small dense low density lipoprotein has increased affinity for LDL receptor-independent cell surface binding sites: A potential mechanism for increased atherogenicity","volume":"39","author":"Galeano","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakubiak, G.K., Cieslar, G., and Stanek, A. (2022). Nitrotyrosine, Nitrated Lipoproteins, and Cardiovascular Dysfunction in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: What Do We Know and What Remains to Be Explained?. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11050856"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841545","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.841545","article-title":"Modified Lipoproteins Induce Arterial Wall Inflammation During Atherogenesis","volume":"9","author":"Lorey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.20.7.1716","article-title":"Oxidation of LDL by myeloperoxidase and reactive nitrogen species: Reaction pathways and antioxidant protection","volume":"20","author":"Carr","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2459","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehx144","article-title":"Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel","volume":"38","author":"Ference","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)30267-4","article-title":"Structure of apolipoprotein B-100 in low density lipoproteins","volume":"42","author":"Segrest","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2006.07.007","article-title":"Apolipoprotein A1 and B","volume":"26","author":"Sniderman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2019.3780","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B Particles and Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review","volume":"4","author":"Sniderman","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorobantu, M., Halatiu, V.B., Gheorghe-Fronea, O., Bala, C.G., Moldovan, H., Irinel-Parepa, R., Rodean, I.P., Benedek, I., and Benedek, T. (2023). The Association between Apolipoprotein B, Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Subclinical Atherosclerosis-Findings from the SEPHAR National Registry on Hypertension in Romania. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032813"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1988.03410130125037","article-title":"Low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns and risk of myocardial infarction","volume":"260","author":"Austin","year":"1988","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057807","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B, Residual Cardiovascular Risk after Acute Coronary Syndrome, and Effects of Alirocumab","volume":"146","author":"Hagstrom","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/hvac161","article-title":"A Translational Tool to Facilitate Use of Apolipoprotein B for Clinical Decision-Making","volume":"69","author":"Cole","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20160872","article-title":"Statins, PCSK9 inhibitors and cholesterol homeostasis: A view from within the hepatocyte","volume":"131","author":"Sniderman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Sci (Lond)"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-017-0858-6","article-title":"Targeting LDL Cholesterol: Beyond Absolute Goals Toward Personalized Risk","volume":"19","author":"Leibowitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/hvaa252","article-title":"Residual Cardiovascular Risk at Low LDL: Remnants, Lipoprotein(a), and Inflammation","volume":"67","author":"Hoogeveen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000740","article-title":"Measuring LDL-cholesterol: What is the best way to do it?","volume":"35","author":"Wolska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wadstrom, B.N., Wulff, A.B., Pedersen, K.M., and Nordestgaard, B.G. (2023). Remnant cholesterol in the era of intensive lipid-lowering therapies. Eur. Heart. J., ehad298.","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehad298"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/18.6.499","article-title":"Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge","volume":"18","author":"Friedewald","year":"1972","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.005873","article-title":"Discordance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol with alternative LDL-related measures and future coronary events","volume":"129","author":"Mora","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2015.10.055","article-title":"Discordance Between Apolipoprotein B and LDL-Cholesterol in Young Adults Predicts Coronary Artery Calcification: The CARDIA Study","volume":"67","author":"Wilkins","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2016.264515","article-title":"Discordance between Circulating Atherogenic Cholesterol Mass and Lipoprotein Particle Concentration in Relation to Future Coronary Events in Women","volume":"63","author":"Lawler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2012.08.039","article-title":"Discordance analysis of apolipoprotein B and non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol as markers of cardiovascular risk in the INTERHEART study","volume":"225","author":"Sniderman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487315569411","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B improves risk assessment of future coronary heart disease in the Framingham Heart Study beyond LDL-C and non-HDL-C","volume":"22","author":"Pencina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2021.01.027","article-title":"Apolipoprotein B and Non-HDL Cholesterol Better Reflect Residual Risk Than LDL Cholesterol in Statin-Treated Patients","volume":"77","author":"Johannesen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.3343\/alm.2015.35.6.586","article-title":"Hypertriglyceridemia is a major factor associated with elevated levels of small dense LDL cholesterol in patients with metabolic syndrome","volume":"35","author":"Cho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802045","article-title":"Low-density lipoprotein particle size, central obesity, cardiovascular fitness, and insulin resistance syndrome markers in obese youths","volume":"26","author":"Kang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. J. Int. Assoc. Study Obes."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5030928","article-title":"Lipoprotein subfractions in metabolic syndrome and obesity: Clinical significance and therapeutic approaches","volume":"5","author":"Nikolic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000759","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.113.000759","article-title":"Relations of change in plasma levels of LDL-C, non-HDL-C and apoB with risk reduction from statin therapy: A meta-analysis of randomized trials","volume":"3","author":"Thanassoulis","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-007-9165-7","article-title":"The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration: Analysis of individual data on lipid, inflammatory and other markers in over 1.1 million participants in 104 prospective studies of cardiovascular diseases","volume":"22","author":"Danesh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2012.366","article-title":"Association of LDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B levels with risk of cardiovascular events among patients treated with statins: A meta-analysis","volume":"307","author":"Boekholdt","year":"2012","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.110.959247","article-title":"A meta-analysis of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B as markers of cardiovascular risk","volume":"4","author":"Sniderman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.025253","article-title":"Effects of PCSK9 Inhibition with Alirocumab on Lipoprotein Metabolism in Healthy Humans","volume":"135","author":"Pavlyha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M600439-JLR200","article-title":"The molecular mechanisms underlying the reduction of LDL apoB-100 by ezetimibe plus simvastatin","volume":"48","author":"Telford","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e014129","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.014129","article-title":"Effect of Evolocumab on Non-High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol, Apolipoprotein B, and Lipoprotein(a): A Pooled Analysis of Phase 2 and Phase 3 Studies","volume":"9","author":"Toth","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000216750.09611.ec","article-title":"Effect of ezetimibe on the in vivo kinetics of apoB-48 and apoB-100 in men with primary hypercholesterolemia","volume":"26","author":"Tremblay","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waldmann, E., Wu, L., Busygina, K., Altenhofer, J., Henze, K., Folwaczny, A., and Parhofer, K.G. (2022). Effect of PCSK9 inhibition with evolocumab on lipoprotein subfractions in familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (type III hyperlipidemia). PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265838"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/40.4.586","article-title":"International Federation of Clinical Chemistry standardization project for measurements of apolipoproteins A-I and B. IV. Comparability of apolipoprotein B values by use of International Reference Material","volume":"40","author":"Marcovina","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"College of American Pathologists (2022). Surveys and Anatomic Pathology Education Programs. Chemistry\/Therapeutic, Drug Monitoring. Participant Summary, CAP."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/48.9.1526","article-title":"Selection, preparation, and characterization of commutable frozen human serum pools as potential secondary reference materials for lipid and apolipoprotein measurements: Study within the framework of the Dutch project \u201cCalibration 2000\u201d","volume":"48","author":"Cobbaert","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2018.287037","article-title":"Quantifying Atherogenic Lipoproteins: Current and Future Challenges in the Era of Personalized Medicine and Very Low Concentrations of LDL Cholesterol. A Consensus Statement from EAS and EFLM","volume":"64","author":"Langlois","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/hvaa239","article-title":"Towards an SI-Traceable Reference Measurement System for Seven Serum Apolipoproteins Using Bottom-Up Quantitative Proteomics: Conceptual Approach Enabled by Cross-Disciplinary\/Cross-Sector Collaboration","volume":"67","author":"Cobbaert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2009.142810","article-title":"Seven direct methods for measuring HDL and LDL cholesterol compared with ultracentrifugation reference measurement procedures","volume":"56","author":"Miller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2010.154773","article-title":"Non-HDL cholesterol shows improved accuracy for cardiovascular risk score classification compared to direct or calculated LDL cholesterol in a dyslipidemic population","volume":"57","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2008.111401","article-title":"Targets of statin therapy: LDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS)","volume":"55","author":"Betteridge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.031855","article-title":"Quantifying Importance of Major Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease","volume":"139","author":"Pencina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0000000000000181","article-title":"Limitations in the conventional assessment of the incremental value of predictors of cardiovascular risk","volume":"26","author":"Sniderman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000255580.73689.8e","article-title":"Improving prediction of ischemic cardiovascular disease in the general population using apolipoprotein B: The Copenhagen City Heart Study","volume":"27","author":"Benn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-020-01323-z","article-title":"Non-HDL Cholesterol or apoB: Which to Prefer as a Target for the Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease?","volume":"22","author":"Langlois","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2020.05.001","article-title":"The clinical utility of apoB versus LDL-C\/non-HDL-C","volume":"508","author":"Thanassoulis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022134","article-title":"Moving toward the Next Paradigm for Cardiovascular Prevention","volume":"133","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.7326\/M16-1739","article-title":"Calibration of the Pooled Cohort Equations for Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: An Update","volume":"165","author":"Cook","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.2632","article-title":"Comparison of application of the ACC\/AHA guidelines, Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines, and European Society of Cardiology guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in a European cohort","volume":"311","author":"Kavousi","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62388-0","article-title":"Statins: New American guidelines for prevention of cardiovascular disease","volume":"382","author":"Ridker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/17\/5737\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:45:43Z","timestamp":1760129143000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/17\/5737"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm12175737"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm12175737","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]]}}}