{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:40:12Z","timestamp":1790185212120,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]],"date-time":"2023-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)","award":["491466077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["491466077"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) allows for a reliable assessment of oxygenated blood flow in relevant brain regions. Recent advancements in immersive virtual reality (VR)-based technology have generated many new possibilities for its application, such as in stroke rehabilitation. In this study, we asked whether there is a difference in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2) within brain motor areas during hand\/arm movements between immersive and non-immersive VR settings. Ten healthy young participants (24.3 \u00b1 3.7, three females) were tested using a specially developed VR paradigm, called \u201cbus riding\u201d, whereby participants used their hand to steer a moving bus. Both immersive and non-immersive conditions stimulated brain regions controlling hand movements, namely motor cortex, but no significant differences in HbO2 could be found between the two conditions in any of the relevant brain regions. These results are to be interpreted with caution, as only ten participants were included in the study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12185781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]],"date-time":"2023-09-05T10:26:43Z","timestamp":1693909603000},"page":"5781","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A Comparison of Immersive vs. Non-Immersive Virtual Reality Exercises for the Upper Limb: A Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Pilot Study with Healthy Participants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7869-3519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milos","family":"Dordevic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chronic and Degenerative Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences (FGW), Potsdam University, 14476 Potsdam, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Maile","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anustup","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Informatics, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sumit","family":"Kundu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chronic and Degenerative Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences (FGW), Potsdam University, 14476 Potsdam, Germany"},{"name":"Faculty of Informatics, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carolin","family":"Haun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Edith-Stein Fachklinik, 76887 Bad Bergzabern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernhard","family":"Baier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Edith-Stein Fachklinik, 76887 Bad Bergzabern, Germany"},{"name":"University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5483-6423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Notger G.","family":"M\u00fcller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chronic and Degenerative Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences (FGW), Potsdam University, 14476 Potsdam, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2016.00074","article-title":"Enhancing Our Lives with Immersive Virtual Reality","volume":"3","author":"Slater","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Robot. AI"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2020.1725126","article-title":"Virtual reality therapy for upper limb rehabilitation in patients with stroke: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials","volume":"34","author":"Mekbib","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0000000000001615","article-title":"Effects of passive and active training modes of upper-limb rehabilitation robot on cortical activation: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"32","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2018.01.023","article-title":"Virtual Reality for Upper Limb Rehabilitation in Subacute and Chronic Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"99","author":"Kiper","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2021.06.024","article-title":"Effects of Virtual Reality Intervention on Neural Plasticity in Stroke Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review","volume":"103","author":"Hao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, J., He, Z., Yu, X., and Remis, A. (2023). Comparison of Immersive and Non-Immersive Virtual Reality for Upper Extremity Functional Recovery in Patients with Stroke: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-023-06742-8"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5501","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-019-08348-9","article-title":"A review of immersive virtual reality serious games to enhance learning and training","volume":"79","author":"Checa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02509","article-title":"Immersive Versus Non-immersive Experience: Exploring the Feasibility of Memory Assessment Through 360\u00b0 Technology","volume":"10","author":"Ventura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103849","article-title":"An evidence of cognitive benefits from immersive design review: Comparing three-dimensional perception and presence between immersive and non-immersive virtual environments","volume":"130","author":"Paes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1177\/1046878119831420","article-title":"Gaming in Virtual Reality: What Changes in Terms of Usability, Emotional Response and Sense of Presence Compared to Non-Immersive Video Games?","volume":"50","author":"Pallavicini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Simul. Gaming"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1177\/02692155211066534","article-title":"Effects of virtual reality in improving upper extremity function after stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"36","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herold, F., Wiegel, P., Scholkmann, F., and M\u00fcller, N.G. (2018). Applications of Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) Neuroimaging in Exercise\u2013Cognition Science: A Systematic, Methodology-Focused Review. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7120466"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/s13360-021-01516-7","article-title":"The oxygen saturation in the primary motor cortex during a single hand movement: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study","volume":"136","author":"Kurkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Plus"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herold, F., Behrendt, T., T\u00f6rpel, A., Hamacher, D., M\u00fcller, N.G., and Schega, L. (2021). Cortical hemodynamics as a function of handgrip strength and cognitive performance: A cross-sectional fNIRS study in younger adults. BMC Neurosci., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-021-00615-6"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2021.147666","article-title":"Changes in cortical hemodynamics with the emergence of skilled motor ability in infants: An fNIRS study","volume":"1772","author":"Nishiyori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1177\/15459683211019341","article-title":"Motor Cortex Activation During Writing in Focal Upper-Limb Dystonia: An fNIRS Study","volume":"35","author":"Balardin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-020-00785-2","article-title":"Identifying Resting-State Functional Connectivity Changes in the Motor Cortex Using fNIRS During Recovery from Stroke","volume":"33","author":"Arun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Topogr."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"207","article-title":"Time course of sensorimotor cortex reorganization during upper extremity task accompanying motor recovery early after stroke: An fNIRS study","volume":"37","author":"Delorme","year":"2019","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"4","article-title":"Task-Related Hemodynamic Response Alterations During Slacklining: An fNIRS Study in Advanced Slackliners","volume":"2","author":"Ragert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neuroergonom."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.09.024","article-title":"10\/20, 10\/10, and 10\/5 systems revisited: Their validity as relative head-surface-based positioning systems","volume":"34","author":"Jurcak","year":"2007","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D280","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.00D280","article-title":"HomER: A review of time-series analysis methods for near-infrared spectroscopy of the brain","volume":"48","author":"Huppert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.09.025","article-title":"Temporal Derivative Distribution Repair (TDDR): A motion correction method for fNIRS","volume":"184","author":"Fishburn","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00505","article-title":"Current Status and Issues Regarding Pre-processing of fNIRS Neuroimaging Data: An Investigation of Diverse Signal Filtering Methods Within a General Linear Model Framework","volume":"12","author":"Pinti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.08.095","article-title":"Short separation channel location impacts the performance of short channel regression in NIRS","volume":"59","author":"Gagnon","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.06.047","article-title":"Exploring the false discovery rate in multichannel NIRS","volume":"33","author":"Singh","year":"2006","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Xu, Y., He, L., Zhu, Y., Kuang, S., and Sun, L. (2021). Research on fNIRS Recognition Method of Upper Limb Movement Intention. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10111239"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sattar, N.Y., Kausar, Z., Usama, S.A., Farooq, U., Shah, M.F., Muhammad, S., Khan, R., and Badran, M. (2022). fNIRS-Based Upper Limb Motion Intention Recognition Using an Artificial Neural Network for Transhumeral Amputees. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030726"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968313520410","article-title":"Lower Limb Movement Preparation in Chronic Stroke","volume":"28","author":"Rea","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.20.135","article-title":"Frontal Lobe Activity during the Performance of Spatial Tasks: fNIRS Study","volume":"20","author":"Morioka","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3333","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.15570","article-title":"Effective brain network analysis in unilateral and bilateral upper limb exercise training in subjects with stroke","volume":"49","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abtahi, M., Amiri, A.M., Byrd, D., and Mankodiya, K. (2017). Hand Motion Detection in fNIRS Neuroimaging Data. Healthcare, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare5020020"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalalvandi, M., Alam, N.R., and Sharini, H. (2019). Optical Imaging of Brain Motor Cortex Activation During Wrist Movement Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). Arch. Neurosci., 6.","DOI":"10.5812\/ans.90089"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5491296","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5491296","article-title":"Comparison of Brain Activation during Motor Imagery and Motor Movement Using fNIRS","volume":"2017","author":"Batula","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798870","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.798870","article-title":"An fNIRS Study of Brain Lateralization During Observation and Execution of a Fine Motor Task","volume":"15","author":"Khaksari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01330","article-title":"Age-Related Differences with Immersive and Non-immersive Virtual Reality in Memory Assessment","volume":"10","author":"Sahula","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880447","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.880447","article-title":"The effectiveness of immersive virtual reality in physical recovery of stroke patients: A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Patsaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104122","article-title":"Remediating learning from non-immersive to immersive media: Using EEG to investigate the effects of environmental embeddedness on reading in Virtual Reality","volume":"164","author":"Baceviciute","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/18\/5781\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:46:50Z","timestamp":1760129210000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/12\/18\/5781"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm12185781"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm12185781","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,5]]}}}