{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:33:33Z","timestamp":1791232413289,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological culprit of COronaVIrus Disease 19 (COVID-19), can enter the cells via the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, which has been found in several tissues including in endocrine organs, such as the ovaries, testes, pancreas, and thyroid. Several thyroid disorders have been associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection [subacute thyroiditis (SAT), thyrotoxicosis, and non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS)] and, in part, they are believed to be secondary to the local virus replication within the gland cells. However, as documented for other viruses, SARS-CoV-2 seems to interfere with several aspects of the immune system, inducing the synthesis of autoantibodies and triggering latent or new onset autoimmune disease (AID), including autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), such as Hashimoto Thyroiditis (HT) and Graves\u2019 disease (GD). Several mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain this induction of autoimmunity by SARS-CoV-2 infection: the immune system hyper-stimulation, the molecular mimicry between the self-antigens of the host and the virus, neutrophils extracellular traps, and finally, the virus induced transcriptional changes in the immune genes; nonetheless, more evidence is needed especially from large, long-term cohort studies involving COVID-19 patients, to establish or reject this pathogenetic relationship.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12196365","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T03:05:19Z","timestamp":1696475119000},"page":"6365","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Thyroid Autoimmunity and SARS-CoV-2 Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Poupak","family":"Fallahi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giusy","family":"Elia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Ragusa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina Rosaria","family":"Paparo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1090-4794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Armando","family":"Patrizio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eugenia","family":"Balestri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valeria","family":"Mazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Benvenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine\u2014Endocrinology, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Master Program on Childhood, Adolescent and Women\u2019s Endocrine Health, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Interdepartmental Program of Molecular & Clinical Endocrinology and Women\u2019s Endocrine Health, University Hospital Policlinico \u201cG. Martino\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9285-4657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gilda","family":"Varricchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Center for Basic and Clinical Immunology Research, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"World Allergy Organization Center of Excellence, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Oncology \u201cGaetano Salvatore\u201d, National Research Council, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Gragnani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Botrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8999-1386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enke","family":"Baldini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Medicine, \u201cSapienza\u201d University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0661-1649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Centanni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Endocrinology Section, \u2018\u2018Sapienza\u2019\u2019 University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Endocrine Unit, Azienda Unit\u00e0 Sanitaria Locale (AUSL) Latina, 04100 Latina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clodoveo","family":"Ferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41100 Modena, Italy"},{"name":"Rheumatology Clinic \u2018Madonna Dello Scoglio\u2019 Cotronei, 88836 Crotone, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5211-6342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Antonelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Medical and Molecular Pathology and of Critical Area, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia Martina","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2023, January 31). 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