{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T16:37:03Z","timestamp":1789835823527,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,13]],"date-time":"2023-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Current Research 2023 of the Italian Ministry of Health"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological diseases in both adults and children. Despite improvements in medical care, 20 to 30% of patients are still resistant to the best medical treatment. The quality of life, neurologic morbidity, and even mortality of patients are significantly impacted by medically intractable epilepsy. Nowadays, conservative therapeutic approaches consist of increasing medication dosage, changing to a different anti-seizure drug as monotherapy, and combining different antiseizure drugs using an add-on strategy. However, such measures may not be sufficient to efficiently control seizure recurrence. Resective surgery, ablative procedures and non-resective neuromodulatory (deep-brain stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation) treatments are the available treatments for these kinds of patients. However, invasive procedures may involve lengthy inpatient stays for the patients, risks of long-term neurological impairment, general anesthesia, and other possible surgery-related complications (i.e., hemorrhage or infection). In the last few years, MR-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) has been proposed as an emerging treatment for neurological diseases because of technological advancements and the goal of minimally invasive neurosurgery. By outlining the current knowledge obtained from both preclinical and clinical studies and discussing the technical opportunities of this therapy for particular epileptic phenotypes, in this perspective review, we explore the various mechanisms and potential applications (thermoablation, blood-brain barrier opening for drug delivery, neuromodulation) of high- and low-intensity ultrasound, highlighting possible novel strategies to treat drug-resistant epileptic patients who are not eligible or do not accept currently established surgical approaches. Taken together, the available studies support a possible role for lesional treatment over the anterior thalamus with high-intensity ultrasound and neuromodulation of the hippocampus via low-intensity ultrasound in refractory epilepsy. However, more studies, likely conceiving epilepsy as a network disorder and bridging together different scales and modalities, are required to make ultrasound delivery strategies meaningful, effective, and safe.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12227070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,13]],"date-time":"2023-11-13T08:44:27Z","timestamp":1699865067000},"page":"7070","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["MR-Guided Focused Ultrasound for Refractory Epilepsy: Where Are We Now?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Angelo","family":"Labate","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurophysiopathology and Movement Disorders Unit, BIOMORF Department, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Bertino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosa","family":"Morabito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Smorto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annalisa","family":"Militi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simona","family":"Cammaroto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmelo","family":"Anfuso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Tomaiuolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4867-1378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Tonin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"S.Anna Institute, 88900 Crotone, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Marino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Cerasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"S.Anna Institute, 88900 Crotone, Italy"},{"name":"Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation (IRIB), National Research Council of Italy, 98164 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Pharmacotechnology Documentation and Transfer Unit, Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health Science and Nutrition, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelo","family":"Quartarone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Centro Neurolesi \u201cBonino Pulejo\u201d, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02397.x","article-title":"Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: Consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"51","author":"Kwan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.120.019539","article-title":"Drug resistance in epilepsy: Clinical impact, potential mechanisms, and new innovative treatment options","volume":"72","author":"Potschka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. 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