{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T11:15:59Z","timestamp":1792062959283,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,27]],"date-time":"2023-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703635200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acute myocarditis covers a wide spectrum of clinical presentations, from uncomplicated myocarditis to severe forms complicated by hemodynamic instability and ventricular arrhythmias; however, all these forms are characterized by acute myocardial inflammation. The term \u201cchronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy\u201d describes a persistent\/chronic inflammatory condition with a clinical phenotype of dilated and\/or hypokinetic cardiomyopathy associated with symptoms of heart failure and increased risk for arrhythmias. A continuum can be identified between these two conditions. The importance of early diagnosis has grown markedly in the contemporary era with various diagnostic tools available. While cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is valid for diagnosis and follow-up, endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) should be considered as a first-line diagnostic modality in all unexplained acute cardiomyopathies complicated by hemodynamic instability and ventricular arrhythmias, considering the local expertise. Genetic counseling should be recommended in those cases where a genotype\u2013phenotype association is suspected, as this has significant implications for patients\u2019 and their family members\u2019 prognoses. Recognition of the pathophysiological pathway and clinical \u201cred flags\u201d and an early diagnosis may help us understand mechanisms of progression, tailor long-term preventive and therapeutic strategies for this complex disease, and ultimately improve clinical outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13010150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,27]],"date-time":"2023-12-27T05:43:15Z","timestamp":1703655795000},"page":"150","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Myocarditis and Chronic Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy, from Acute Inflammation to Chronic Inflammatory Damage: An Update on Pathophysiology and Diagnosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6163-8468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Uccello","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Alessandro Manzoni Hospital\u2014ASST Lecco, 23900 Lecco, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8305-5274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giacomo","family":"Bonacchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina Alice","family":"Rossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3918-5183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Montrasio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inherited Cardiovascular Diseases Unit, Barts Heart Centre, St. Bartholomew\u2019s Hospital, London EC1A 7BS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7161-3224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Beltrami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiomyopathy Unit, Careggi University Hospital, 50134 Florence, Italy"},{"name":"Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology Unit, Careggi University Hospital, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-00435-x","article-title":"Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: Current evidence and future directions","volume":"18","author":"Ammirati","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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