{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T08:38:12Z","timestamp":1773218292256,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]],"date-time":"2023-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious illness caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The clinical presentation of COVID-19 is variable, often including symptoms such as fever, cough, headache, fatigue, and an altered sense of smell and taste. Recently, post-acute \u201clong\u201d COVID-19 has emerged as a concern, with symptoms persisting beyond the acute infection. Vaccinations remain one of the most effective preventative methods against severe COVID-19 outcomes and the development of long-term COVID-19. However, individuals with underlying health conditions may not mount an adequate protective response to COVID-19 vaccines, increasing the likelihood of severe symptoms, hospitalization, and the development of long-term COVID-19 in high-risk populations. This review explores the potential therapeutic role of cannabinoids in limiting the susceptibility and severity of infection, both pre- and post-SARS-CoV-19 infection. Early in the SARS-CoV-19 infection, cannabinoids have been shown to prevent viral entry, mitigate oxidative stress, and alleviate the associated cytokine storm. Post-SARS-CoV-2 infection, cannabinoids have shown promise in treating symptoms associated with post-acute long COVID-19, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress injury, insomnia, pain, and decreased appetite. While current research primarily focuses on potential treatments for the acute phase of COVID-19, there is a gap in research addressing therapeutics for the early and post-infectious phases. This review highlights the potential for future research to bridge this gap by investigating cannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system as a potential treatment strategy for both early and post-SARS-CoV-19 infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13010227","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]],"date-time":"2023-12-31T06:00:21Z","timestamp":1704002421000},"page":"227","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Cannabinoids and the Endocannabinoid System in Early SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Long COVID-19\u2014A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6780-3367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cassidy","family":"Scott","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management and Perioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9670-6192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3040-0238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management and Perioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6419-9168","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Lehmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Pain Management and Perioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1X5, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, July 02). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available online: https:\/\/data.who.int\/dashboards\/covid19\/cases?n=c."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Public Health Agency of Canada (2023). COVID-19 Vaccination in Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2022.150","article-title":"Tixagevimab and Cilgavimab: Can We See More Recommendations for Monoclonal Antibodies beyond COVID-19 Vaccination","volume":"16","author":"Anmar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Disaster Med. Public Health Prep."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (2020). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines, National Institutes of Health."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.037","article-title":"The pathogenesis and treatment of the \u2018Cytokine Storm\u2019 in COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126363","article-title":"IFN-I response timing relative to virus replication determines MERS coronavirus infection outcomes","volume":"129","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.01169","article-title":"Cellular and Molecular Pathways of COVID-19 and Potential Points of Therapeutic Intervention","volume":"11","author":"Hussman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.3390\/ph3061873","article-title":"Cannabinoids and viral infections","volume":"3","author":"Reiss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)00619-X","article-title":"Public health and international drug policy","volume":"387","author":"Csete","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabi, F.A., Al Zoubi, M.S., Al-Nasser, A.D., Kasasbeh, G.A., and Salameh, D.M. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 and coronavirus disease 2019: What we know so far. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9030231"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1038\/s41368-020-0074-x","article-title":"High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.1c00946","article-title":"Cannabinoids Block Cellular Entry of SARS-CoV-2 and the Emerging Variants","volume":"85","author":"Muchiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s00232-020-00136-z","article-title":"Entry Inhibitors: Efficient Means to Block Viral Infection","volume":"253","author":"Pattnaik","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01853","article-title":"Inhibiting the Ins and Outs of HIV replication: Cell-intrinsic antiretroviral restrictions at the plasma membrane","volume":"8","author":"Foster","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Cui, Q., Caffrey, M., Rong, L., and Du, R. (2021). Small molecule inhibitors of influenza virus entry. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14060587"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2021.09.003","article-title":"Antivirals targeting paramyxovirus membrane fusion","volume":"51","author":"Contreras","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khomich, O.A., Kochetkov, S.N., Bartosch, B., and Ivanov, A.V. (2018). Redox biology of respiratory viral infections. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10080392"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vardakas, P., Skaperda, Z., Tekos, F., and Kouretas, D. (2022). ROS and COVID. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11020339"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duca, L., Ottolenghi, S., Coppola, S., Rinaldo, R., Dei Cas, M., Rubino, F.M., Paroni, R., Samaja, M., Chiumello, D.A., and Motta, I. (2021). Differential redox state and iron regulation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute respiratory distress syndrome and coronavirus disease 2019. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10091460"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gain, C., Song, S., Angtuaco, T., Satta, S., and Kelesidis, T. (2023). The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of infections with coronaviruses. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1111930"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2021.11.001","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection and oxidative stress: Pathophysiological insight into thrombosis and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"63","author":"Alam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2012.4641","article-title":"Angiotensin II, NADPH oxidase, and redox signaling in the vasculature","volume":"19","author":"Montezano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antioxidants Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atalay, S., Jarocka-karpowicz, I., and Skrzydlewskas, E. (2020). Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of cannabidiol. Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9010021"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H610","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00236.2007","article-title":"Cannabidiol attenuates high glucose-induced endothelial cell inflammatory response and barrier disruption","volume":"293","author":"Rajesh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.\u2013Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.108.147181","article-title":"Cannabidiol attenuates cisplatin-Lnduced nephrotoxicity by decreasing oxidative\/nitrosative stress, inflammation, and cell death","volume":"328","author":"Pan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4068\/cmj.2022.58.1.1","article-title":"The Association of COVID-19 and Reactive Oxygen Species Modulator 1 (ROMO1) with Oxidative Stress","volume":"58","author":"Amini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chonnam Med. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-022-00565-9","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor 2 activation alleviates diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction, inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis","volume":"44","author":"Rajesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2015.12.019","article-title":"\u03b2-Caryophyllene, a natural sesquiterpene lactone attenuates hyperglycemia mediated oxidative and inflammatory stress in experimental diabetic rats","volume":"245","author":"Basha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6508","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1102435","article-title":"Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1 Protects Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic Neurons against MPTP Neurotoxicity by Inhibiting Microglial Activation","volume":"187","author":"Chung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893516","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/893516","article-title":"Anandamide protects HT22 cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide by inhibiting CB1 receptor-mediated type 2 NADPH oxidase","volume":"2014","author":"Jia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa248","article-title":"Dysregulation of Immune Response in Patients With Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"71","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2141","article-title":"Interleukin-6 in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"30","author":"Coomes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suryavanshi, S.V., Zaiachuk, M., Pryimak, N., Kovalchuk, I., and Kovalchuk, O. (2022). Cannabinoids Alleviate the LPS-Induced Cytokine Storm via Attenuating NLRP3 Inflammasome Signaling and TYK2-Mediated STAT3 Signaling Pathways In Vitro. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202204.0077.v1"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammed, A., Alghetaa, H.F.K., Miranda, K., Wilson, K., Singh, N.P., Cai, G., Putluri, N., Nagarkatti, P., and Nagarkatti, M. (2020). \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol Prevents Mortality from Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome through the Induction of Apoptosis in Immune Cells, Leading to Cytokine Storm Suppression. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176244"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2020.03.011","article-title":"Poor survival with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Pooled analysis of early reports","volume":"58","author":"Henry","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2020.0043","article-title":"Cannabidiol Modulates Cytokine Storm in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Induced by Simulated Viral Infection Using Synthetic RNA","volume":"5","author":"Khodadadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.07.037","article-title":"Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors","volume":"89","author":"Mazza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30462-4","article-title":"Bidirectional associations between COVID-19 and psychiatric disorder: Retrospective cohort studies of 62 354 COVID-19 cases in the USA","volume":"8","author":"Taquet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vanderheiden, A., and Klein, R.S. (2022). Neuroinflammation and COVID-19. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 76.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2022.102608"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, S., and Kumar, U. (2018). Cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system: Signaling and function in the central nervous system. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19030833"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4878","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02054-6","article-title":"Current Aspects of the Endocannabinoid System and Targeted THC and CBD Phytocannabinoids as Potential Therapeutics for Parkinson\u2019s and Alzheimer\u2019s Diseases: A Review","volume":"57","author":"Cooray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Feingold, D., and Weinstein, A. (2021). Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Springer."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0284-z","article-title":"Cannabinoids and the expanded endocannabinoid system in neurological disorders","volume":"16","author":"Cristino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019686","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686","article-title":"Prevalence of depression symptoms in US adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"3","author":"Ettman","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"e52587","article-title":"The Forced Swim Test as a Model of Depressive-like Behavior","volume":"17","author":"Franko","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2009.00521.x","article-title":"Antidepressant-like effects of cannabidiol in mice: Possible involvement of 5-HT1A receptors","volume":"159","author":"Zanelati","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2016.01.033","article-title":"Antidepressant-like effect of cannabidiol injection into the ventral medial prefrontal cortex\u2014Possible involvement of 5-HT1A and CB1 receptors","volume":"303","author":"Sartim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silote, G.P., Gatto, M.C., Eskelund, A., Guimar\u00e3es, F.S., Wegener, G., and Joca, S.R.L. (2021). Strain-, Sex-, and Time-Dependent Antidepressant-like Effects of Cannabidiol. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202110.0347.v1"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1554","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.729800","article-title":"Antidepressant and Anxiolytic Effects of Medicinal Cannabis Use in an Observational Trial","volume":"12","author":"Martin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2022.2161894","article-title":"Assessment of clinical outcomes of medicinal cannabis therapy for depression: Analysis from the UK Medical Cannabis Registry","volume":"22","author":"Mangoo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Empower Research Inc. (2021). Exploring Medically Perceived Benefits, Use and Interest in Psychedelics and Cannabinoids, Empower Research Inc.. NCT04965740."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2020.22.3\/pfadda","article-title":"Cannabinoids and their therapeutic applications in mental disorders","volume":"22","author":"Scherma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.158.12.2033","article-title":"Cannabis Abuse as a Risk Factor for Depressive Symptoms","volume":"158","author":"Bovasso","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.2008.tb01803.x","article-title":"Heavy cannabis use and depressive symptoms in three Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory","volume":"188","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scherma, M., Masia, P., Deidda, M., Fratta, W., Tanda, G., and Fadda, P. (2018). New Perspectives on the Use of Cannabis in the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders. Medicines, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines5040107"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32656-8","article-title":"6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: A cohort study","volume":"397","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2020.22.3\/rmaldonado","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system in modulating fear, anxiety, and stress","volume":"22","author":"Maldonado","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-010-2036-z","article-title":"The anxiolytic-like effects of cannabidiol injected into the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis are mediated by 5-HT1A receptors","volume":"213","author":"Gomes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2006.05.016","article-title":"Effects of cannabidiol and diazepam on behavioral and cardiovascular responses induced by contextual conditioned fear in rats","volume":"172","author":"Resstel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2006.06.004","article-title":"Anxiolytic-like effect of cannabidiol in the rat Vogel conflict test","volume":"30","author":"Moreira","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1003","article-title":"Pharmacological characterization of cannabinoids in the elevated plus maze","volume":"253","author":"Onaivi","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02244012","article-title":"Antianxiety effect of cannabidiol in the elevated plus-maze","volume":"100","author":"Chiaretti","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1177\/026988119300700112","article-title":"Effects of ipsapirone and cannabidiol on human experimental anxiety","volume":"7","author":"Zuardi","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2011.6","article-title":"Cannabidiol Reduces the Anxiety Induced by Simulated Public Speaking in Treatment-Na\u00efve Social Phobia Patients","volume":"36","author":"Bergamaschi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2020.0102","article-title":"Could cannabidiol be a treatment for coronavirus disease-19-related anxiety disorders?","volume":"6","author":"Stevenson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.07.018","article-title":"Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19\u2014A systematic review","volume":"97","author":"Joca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/s40261-014-0212-3","article-title":"Preliminary, open-label, pilot study of add-on oral \u03949- tetrahydrocannabinol in chronic post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"34","author":"Roitman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Drug Investig."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000180","article-title":"Use of a synthetic cannabinoid in a correctional population for posttraumatic stress disorder-related insomnia and nightmares, chronic pain, harm reduction, and other indications: A retrospective evaluation","volume":"34","author":"Cameron","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-5949.2008.00071.x","article-title":"The use of a synthetic cannabinoid in the management of treatment-resistant nightmares in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)","volume":"15","author":"Fraser","year":"2009","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab384","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab384","article-title":"Long-Term Coronavirus Disease 2019 Complications in Inpatients and Outpatients: A One-Year Follow-up Cohort Study","volume":"8","author":"Lombardo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2008.04.008","article-title":"The role of the CB1 receptor in the regulation of sleep","volume":"32","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsab149","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsab149","article-title":"Treating insomnia symptoms with medicinal cannabis: A randomized, crossover trial of the efficacy of a cannabinoid medicine compared with placebo","volume":"44","author":"Walsh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-021-00423-z","article-title":"Post-COVID-19 Symptom Burden: What is Long-COVID and How Should We Manage It?","volume":"199","author":"Sykes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102947","article-title":"Post-COVID syndrome. A case series and comprehensive review","volume":"20","author":"Anaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruni, N., Della Pepa, C., Oliaro-Bosso, S., Pessione, E., Gastaldi, D., and Dosio, F. (2018). Cannabinoid delivery systems for pain and inflammation treatment. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23102478"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-022-01038-6","article-title":"Post-COVID Pain Syndromes","volume":"26","author":"Fiala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3959(01)00321-9","article-title":"CB2 cannabinoid receptor-mediated peripheral antinociception","volume":"93","author":"Malan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(98)00044-5","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor-mediated inhibition of the rat tail-flick reflex after microinjection into the rostral ventromedial medulla","volume":"242","author":"Martin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2018.0054","article-title":"Role of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Cannabis-Mediated Analgesia in Rats","volume":"4","author":"Harris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2012.10.009","article-title":"Low Dose Vaporized Cannabis Significantly Improves Neuropathic Pain","volume":"14","author":"Wilsey","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2016.05.010","article-title":"An Exploratory Human Laboratory Experiment Evaluating Vaporized Cannabis in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain from Spinal Cord Injury and Disease","volume":"17","author":"Wilsey","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1159\/000527521","article-title":"Integration of Cannabis Extract Tetrahydrocannabinol:Cannabidiol in an Interdisciplinary Therapy Setting: A Case of Chronic Multilocular Pain Disorder","volume":"5","author":"Romeyke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Cannabis Cannabinoids"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pain.2007.08.028","article-title":"Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial","volume":"133","author":"Nurmikko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s10194-012-0490-1","article-title":"Nabilone for the treatment of medication overuse headache: Results of a preliminary double-blind, active-controlled, randomized trial","volume":"13","author":"Pini","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S163","DOI":"10.1016\/S1090-3801(06)60627-7","article-title":"624 Benefits of an Add-On Treatment with the Synthetic Cannabinomimetic Nabilone on Patients with Chronic Pain\u2014A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"10","author":"Pinsger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnab263","article-title":"Effectiveness, Safety, and Tolerability of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray vs Typical Oral Long-Acting Opioid Analgesics in Patients with Severe Neuropathic Back Pain: Analysis of 6-Month Real-World Data from the German Pain e-Registry","volume":"23","author":"Ueberall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dronabinol increases pain threshold in patients with functional chest pain: A pilot double-blind placebo-controlled trial","volume":"30","author":"Malik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dis. Esophagus"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0b013e328349bb4c","article-title":"Cannabis use amongst patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"23","author":"Lal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2809","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MIB.0000435851.94391.37","article-title":"Marijuana use patterns among patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"19","author":"Allegretti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001474","article-title":"Prevalence and Patterns of Marijuana Use in Young Adults with Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"64","author":"Phatak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.03.041","article-title":"Marijuana Use by Adolescents and Young Adults with Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"199","author":"Hoffenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MIB.0000440982.79036.d6","article-title":"Cannabis use provides symptom relief in patients with inflammatory bowel disease but is associated with worse disease prognosis in patients with Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"20","author":"Storr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"455","article-title":"Treatment of Crohn\u2019s disease with Cannabis: An observational study","volume":"13","author":"Naftali","year":"2011","journal-title":"Isr. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2013.04.034","article-title":"Cannabis induces a clinical response in patients with crohn\u2019s disease: A prospective placebo-controlled study","volume":"11","author":"Naftali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1744806917728227","article-title":"Anti-nociceptive interactions between opioids and a cannabinoid receptor 2 agonist in inflammatory pain","volume":"13","author":"Yuill","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Pain"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2010.01046.x","article-title":"Central and peripheral sites of action for CB 2 receptor mediated analgesic activity in chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain models in rats","volume":"162","author":"Hsieh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000176753.45410.8b","article-title":"Randomized, controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in central pain in multiple sclerosis","volume":"65","author":"Rog","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38149.566979.AE","article-title":"Does the cannabinoid dronabinol reduce central pain in multiple sclerosis? Randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial","volume":"329","author":"Svendsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kei183","article-title":"Preliminary assessment of the efficacy, tolerability and safety of a cannabis-based medicine (Sativex) in the treatment of pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"45","author":"Blake","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"1","article-title":"Gastrointestinal manifestations of long COVID: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Choudhury","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30083-2","article-title":"Prolonged presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in faecal samples","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.6358","article-title":"Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"313","author":"Whiting","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1758835919866362","article-title":"Opportunities for cannabis in supportive care in cancer","volume":"11","author":"Kleckner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(21)00076-5","article-title":"Gastrointestinal sequelae 90 days after discharge for COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Weng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1185\/030079907X167525","article-title":"Efficacy of dronabinol alone and in combination with ondansetron versus ondansetron alone for delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting","volume":"23","author":"Meiri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"CD009464","article-title":"Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer receiving chemotherapy","volume":"2015","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2354.2008.00917.x","article-title":"Therapeutic use of Cannabis sativa on chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting among cancer patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer Care"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watson, D.L.B., Campbell, M., Hopkins, C., Smith, B., Kelly, C., and Deary, V. (2021). Altered smell and taste: Anosmia, parosmia and the impact of long COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256998"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1097\/00008877-200509000-00004","article-title":"Endocannabinoids in the regulation of appetite and body weight","volume":"16","author":"Kirkham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1097\/00008877-200509000-00009","article-title":"\u03949-THC induced hyperphagia and tolerance assessment: Interactions between the CB1 receptor agonist \u03949-THC and the CB1 receptor antagonist SR-141716 (rimonabant) in rats","volume":"16","author":"Dipatrizio","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/0885-3924(94)00117-4","article-title":"Dronabinol as a treatment for anorexia associated with weight loss in patients with AIDS","volume":"10","author":"Beal","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Pain Symptom Manag."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilbao, A., Spanagel, R., and Medicine, M.C. (2022). Medical cannabinoids: A pharmacology-based systematic review and meta-analysis for all relevant medical indications. BMC Med., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02459-1"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-016-0119-9","article-title":"Medical cannabis use in Canada: Vapourization and modes of delivery","volume":"13","author":"Shiplo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harm Reduct. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-00977-9","article-title":"Association between age of cannabis initiation and gray matter covariance networks in recent onset psychosis","volume":"46","author":"Penzel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/13\/1\/227\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:44:51Z","timestamp":1760132691000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/13\/1\/227"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm13010227"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm13010227","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]}}}