{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T13:16:38Z","timestamp":1788786998267,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Acute esophageal variceal bleeding accounts for up to 70% of upper-gastrointestinal bleeding in cirrhotic patients. About 10\u201320% of patients with acute variceal bleeding have refractory bleeding that is not controlled by medical or endoscopic therapy, and this condition can be life-threatening. Balloon tamponade is a long-standing therapy which is only effective temporarily and has several complications, while transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) and liver transplantation may not be readily available at some centers. The use of self-expandable metal stents (SEMSs) in refractory esophageal variceal bleeding has been studied for effectiveness and adverse events and has been recommended for use as a bridge to a more definitive treatment. Aim: To investigate the effectiveness and safety of SEMSs in managing refractory variceal bleeding. Methods: A systematic search of the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane library databases was performed from inception to October 2022 using the following terms: \u201cesophageal stent\u201d, \u201cself-expandable metal stents\u201d, \u201cendoscopic hemostasis\u201d, \u201crefractory esophageal varices\u201d, and \u201cesophageal variceal bleeding\u201d. Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they met the following criteria: (1) patients\u2019 age older than 18 and (2) a study (or case series) that has at least 10 patients in the study. Exclusion criteria included (1) non-English publications, (2) in case of overlapping cohorts, data from the most recent and\/or most appropriate comprehensive report were collected. DerSimonian\u2013Laird random-effects meta-analysis was performed using the meta package in R statistical software(version 4.2.2). Results: Twelve studies involving 225 patients with 228 stents were included in the analyses. The mean age and\/or median age ranged from 49.4 to 69 years, with a male-to-female ratio of 4.4 to 1. The median follow-up period was 42 days. The mean SEMS dwell time was 9.4 days. The most common cause of acute refractory variceal bleeding in chronic liver disease patients included alcohol use followed by viral hepatitis. The pooled rate of immediate bleeding control was 91% (95% CI 82\u201395%, I2 = 0). The pooled rate of rebleeding was 17% (95% CI 8\u201332%, I2 = 69). The pooled rate of stent ulceration was 7% (95% CI 3\u201313%, I2 = 0), and the pooled rate of stent migration was 18% (95% CI 9\u201332%, I2 = 38). The pooled rate of all-cause mortality was 38% (95% CI 30\u201347%, I2 = 34). Conclusions: SEMSs should be primarily considered as salvage therapy when endoscopic band ligation and sclerotherapy fail and can be used as a bridge to emergent TIPS or definitive therapy, such as liver transplantation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13020357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T03:36:58Z","timestamp":1704771418000},"page":"357","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Esophageal Stent in Acute Refractory Variceal Bleeding: A Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4117-4272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Busara","family":"Songtanin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chanaka","family":"Kahathuduwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2781-4816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth","family":"Nugent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v2.i7.261","article-title":"Acute esophageal variceal bleeding: Current strategies and new perspectives","volume":"2","author":"Augustin","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. 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