{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T01:57:55Z","timestamp":1790906275612,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":185,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,26]],"date-time":"2024-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708905600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus and a leading cause of visual impairment worldwide. It is defined as the diabetes-related accumulation of fluid, proteins, and lipids, with retinal thickening, within the macular area. DME affects a significant proportion of individuals with diabetes, with the prevalence increasing with disease duration and severity. It is estimated that approximately 25\u201330% of diabetic patients will develop DME during their lifetime. Poor glycemic control, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes duration, and genetic predisposition are recognized as risk factors for the development and progression of DME. Although the exact pathophysiology is still not completely understood, it has been demonstrated that chronic hyperglycemia triggers a cascade of biochemical processes, including increased oxidative stress, inflammation, activation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), cellular dysfunction, and apoptosis, with breakdown of the blood-retinal barriers and fluid accumulation within the macular area. Early diagnosis and appropriate management of DME are crucial for improving visual outcomes. Although the control of systemic risk factors still remains the most important strategy in DME treatment, intravitreal pharmacotherapy with anti-VEGF molecules or steroids is currently considered the first-line approach in DME patients, whereas macular laser photocoagulation and pars plana vitrectomy may be useful in selected cases. Available intravitreal steroids, including triamcinolone acetonide injections and dexamethasone and fluocinolone acetonide implants, exert their therapeutic effect by reducing inflammation, inhibiting VEGF expression, stabilizing the blood-retinal barrier and thus reducing vascular permeability. They have been demonstrated to be effective in reducing macular edema and improving visual outcomes in DME patients but are associated with a high risk of intraocular pressure elevation and cataract development, so their use requires an accurate patient selection. This manuscript aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the pathology, epidemiology, risk factors, physiopathology, clinical features, treatment mechanisms of actions, treatment options, prognosis, and ongoing clinical studies related to the treatment of DME, with particular consideration of intravitreal steroids therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13051327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,26]],"date-time":"2024-02-26T10:40:17Z","timestamp":1708944017000},"page":"1327","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["The Treatment of Diabetic Retinal Edema with Intravitreal Steroids: How and When"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6566-1075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Letizia","family":"Salvetat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Azienda Sanitaria Friuli Occidentale, 33170 Pordenone, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Pellegrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Azienda Sanitaria Friuli Occidentale, 33170 Pordenone, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1190-3956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leopoldo","family":"Spadea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eye Clinic, Policlinico Umberto I, \u201cSapienza\u201d University of Rome, 00142 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlo","family":"Salati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7486-8361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutali","family":"Musa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, University of Benin, Benin City 300238, Edo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8424-0068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caterina","family":"Gagliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, Piazza dell\u2019Universit\u00e0, 94100 Enna, Italy"},{"name":"Eye Clinic, Catania University, San Marco Hospital, Viale Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, 95121 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0999-5545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Zeppieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.7748\/ns.2021.e11709","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus: An overview of the types, symptoms, complications and management","volume":"37","author":"Cloete","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nurs. 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