{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T05:35:55Z","timestamp":1769751355618,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]],"date-time":"2024-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: People with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) often have trouble remaining active because of paralysis. In the past, exercise recommendations focused on the non-paralyzed muscles in the arms, which provides limited benefits. However, recent studies show that electrical stimulation can help engage the paralyzed extremities, expanding the available muscle mass for exercise. Methods: The authors provide an evidence-based approach using expertise from diverse fields, supplemented by evidence from key studies toward the management of electrical stimulation therapies in individuals with SCIs. Literature searches were performed separately using the PubMed, Medline, and Google Scholar search engines. The keywords used for the searches included functional electrical stimulation cycling, hybrid cycling, neuromuscular electrical stimulation exercise, spinal cord injury, cardiovascular health, metabolic health, muscle strength, muscle mass, bone mass, upper limb treatment, diagnostic and prognostic use of functional electrical stimulation, tetraplegic hands, and hand deformities after SCI. The authors recently presented this information in a workshop at a major rehabilitation conference. Additional information beyond what was presented at the workshop was added for the writing of this paper. Results: Functional electrical stimulation (FES) cycling can improve aerobic fitness and reduce the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The evidence indicates that while both FES leg cycling and neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) resistance training can increase muscle strength and mass, NMES resistance training has been shown to be more effective for producing muscle hypertrophy in individual muscle groups. The response to the electrical stimulation of muscles can also help in the diagnosis and prognosis of hand dysfunction after tetraplegia. Conclusions: Electrical stimulation activities are safe and effective methods for exercise and testing for motor neuron lesions in individuals with SCIs and other paralytic or paretic conditions. They should be considered part of a comprehensive rehabilitation program in diagnosing, prognosing, and treating individuals with SCIs to improve function, physical activity, and overall health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13102995","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]],"date-time":"2024-05-20T06:31:58Z","timestamp":1716186718000},"page":"2995","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The Clinical Management of Electrical Stimulation Therapies in the Rehabilitation of Individuals with Spinal Cord Injuries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"David R.","family":"Dolbow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Therapy Program, College of Osteopathic Medicine, William Carey University, 710 William Carey Parkway, Hattiesburg, MS 39401, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ines","family":"Bersch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International FES Centre\u00ae, Swiss Paraplegia Centre, CH-6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9157-6034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashraf S.","family":"Gorgey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Injury and Disorders Center, Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, VA 23249, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6241-3757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Glen M.","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Sydney School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0250-2","article-title":"Functional electrical stimulation: Cardiorespiratory adaptations and applications for training in paraplegia","volume":"45","author":"Deley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.3903","article-title":"Contemporary cardiovascular concerns after spinal cord injury: Mechanisms, maladaptations, and management","volume":"32","author":"Phillips","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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