{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T02:26:06Z","timestamp":1789179966354,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]],"date-time":"2024-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Endocarditis, a serious infectious disease, remains a diagnostic challenge in contemporary clinical practice. The advent of advanced imaging modalities has contributed significantly to the improved understanding and management of this complex disease. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging has shown remarkable potential in improving the diagnostic accuracy of endocarditis. In the update of the Modified Duke Criteria, in 2023, The International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Diseases (ISCVID) Working Group recognized specific 18F-FDG PET\/CT findings as a major diagnostic criterion, particularly in patient with prosthetic valve endocarditis. The ability of PET to visualize metabolic activity allows for the identification of infective foci and could differentiate between infective and non-infective processes. This review examines the clinical utility of PET in differentiating infective endocarditis from other cardiovascular pathologies, highlighting its sensitivity and specificity in detecting native and prosthetic valve infections, including patients with transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI), cardiac implantable devices (CIEDs), and left ventricular assistance devices (LVAD). Also, practical aspects and indications are illustrated to optimize the quality of imaging and reduce potential false positive results. In conclusion, the current use of PET in endocarditis has become a valuable diagnostic tool; as technological advances continue, PET will play an increasingly important role in the multidisciplinary approach to the management of endocarditis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13144124","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]],"date-time":"2024-07-15T14:15:49Z","timestamp":1721052949000},"page":"4124","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Contemporary Role of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) in Endocarditis: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Antonio Maria","family":"Sammartino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni Battista","family":"Bonfioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Dondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Medicine, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Riccardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Bertagna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Medicine, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Metra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3544-6104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrico","family":"Vizzardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiology, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Zhan, Y., Zhang, K., Gao, Y., Chen, L., Zhan, J., Chen, Z., and Zeng, Z. (2022). The Global, Regional, and National Burden and Trends of Infective Endocarditis From 1990 to 2019: Results From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.774224"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3233","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz620","article-title":"Clinical presentation, aetiology and outcome of infective endocarditis. Results of the ESC-EORP EURO-ENDO (European infective endocarditis) registry: A prospective cohort study","volume":"40","author":"Habib","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000000296","article-title":"Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications","volume":"132","author":"Baddour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3948","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehad193","article-title":"2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of endocarditis","volume":"44","author":"Delgado","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1086\/313753","article-title":"Proposed modifications to the Duke criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad271","article-title":"The 2023 Duke-International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Diseases Criteria for Infective Endocarditis: Updating the Modified Duke Criteria","volume":"77","author":"Fowler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1093\/ejechocard\/jeq004","article-title":"Recommendations for the practice of echocardiography in infective endocarditis","volume":"11","author":"Habib","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Echocardiogr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.echo.2017.03.007","article-title":"Diagnostic Accuracy of Transthoracic Echocardiography for Infective Endocarditis Findings Using Transesophageal Echocardiography as the Reference Standard: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Bai","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.040228","article-title":"Multimodality Imaging in Infective Endocarditis an Imaging Team Within the Endocarditis Team","volume":"140","author":"Erba","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.echo.2015.05.008","article-title":"Echocardiography in the management of patients with left ventricular assist devices: Recommendations from the American Society of Echocardiography","volume":"28","author":"Stainback","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13019-019-0880-4","article-title":"Value of cardiac computed tomography angiography in pre-operative assessment of infective endocarditis","volume":"14","author":"Chaosuwannakit","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cardiothorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-018-4025-0","article-title":"Recommendations on nuclear and multimodality imaging in IE and CIED infections","volume":"45","author":"Erba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006986","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCIMAGING.117.006986","article-title":"Comparison of Cardiac Computed Tomography with Transesophageal Echocardiography for Identifying Vegetation and Intracardiac Complications in Patients With Infective Endocarditis in the Era of 3-Dimensional Images","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1093\/ejcts\/ezw177","article-title":"Surgical decision-making in aortic prosthetic valve endocarditis: The influence of electrocardiogram-gated computed tomography","volume":"50","author":"Fagman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000000014","article-title":"Symptomatic peripheral mycotic aneurysms due to infective endocarditis: A contemporary profile","volume":"93","author":"Vilacosta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11952","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000011952","article-title":"Detection of spleen, kidney and liver infarcts by abdominal computed tomography does not affect the outcome in patients with left-side infective endocarditis","volume":"97","author":"Parra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e190189","DOI":"10.1148\/ryct.2020190189","article-title":"Comparative value of cardiac CT and transesophageal echocardiography in infective endocarditis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Oliveira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiol. Cardiothorac. Imaging."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2020.12.007","article-title":"Thrombus or vegetation?Importance of cardiac MRI as a diagnostic tool based on case report and literature review","volume":"60","author":"Jandou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.5152\/dir.2014.14239","article-title":"The utility of cardiac MRI in diagnosis of infective endocarditis: Preliminary results","volume":"21","author":"Dursun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1086\/588663","article-title":"Cerebrovascular complications in patients with left-sided infective endocarditis are common: A prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and neurochemical brain damage markers","volume":"47","author":"Gustafsson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-019-0935-x","article-title":"Neurological Complications of Infective Endocarditis","volume":"19","author":"Sotero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.834432","article-title":"Subclinical brain embolization in left-sided infective endocarditis: Results from the evaluation by MRI of the brains of patients with left-sided intracardiac solid masses (EMBOLISM) pilot study","volume":"120","author":"Cooper","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E414","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000002861","article-title":"Comparing the Diagnostic Accuracies of F-18 Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging for the Detection of Spondylodiscitis: A Meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Spine Phila Pa 1976"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2016.11.017","article-title":"MR and CT Imaging to Optimize CT-Guided Biopsies in Suspected Spondylodiscitis","volume":"99","author":"Foreman","year":"2017","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.21.26896","article-title":"Impact of Brain MRI on the Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis and Treatment Decisions: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"218","author":"Ahn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-021-01542-y","article-title":"18F-FDG PET\/CT in Infective Endocarditis: Indications and Approaches for Standardization","volume":"23","author":"Slart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-013-2631-4","article-title":"Image acquisition and interpretation criteria for 99mTc-HMPAO-labelled white blood cell scintigraphy: Results of a multicentre study","volume":"41","author":"Erba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-010-1394-4","article-title":"Guidelines for the labelling of leucocytes with (99m)Tc-HMPAO. Inflammation\/Infection Taskgroup of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine","volume":"37","author":"Roca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-010-1393-5","article-title":"Guidelines for the labelling of leucocytes with (111)In-oxine. Inflammation\/Infection Taskgroup of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine","volume":"37","author":"Roca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nuclcard.2023.101786","article-title":"18F-FDG PET\/CT and radiolabeled leukocyte SPECT\/CT imaging for the evaluation of cardiovascular infection in the multimodality context","volume":"34","author":"Bourque","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10554-022-02730-9","article-title":"Vascular inflammation and cardiovascular disease: Review about the role of PET imaging","volume":"39","author":"Sammartino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.99.4.578","article-title":"Glucose for the Heart","volume":"99","author":"Depre","year":"1999","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-016-0502-7","article-title":"Patient preparation for cardiac fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging of inflammation","volume":"24","author":"Osborne","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s11604-015-0428-z","article-title":"Comparison of myocardial F-18 FDG uptake between overnight and non-overnight fasting in non-diabetic healthy subjects","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.112.105155","article-title":"SNMMI\/ASNC\/SCCT guideline for cardiac SPECT\/CT and PET\/CT 1.0","volume":"54","author":"Dorbala","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jeaa299","article-title":"Procedural recommendations of cardiac PET\/CT imaging: Standardization in inflammatory-, infective-, infiltrative-, and innervation- (4Is) related cardiovascular diseases: A joint collaboration of the EACVI and the EANM: Summary","volume":"21","author":"Slart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-014-9896-2","article-title":"Cardiovascular implantable electronic device infection: Delayed vs standard FDG PET-CT imaging","volume":"21","author":"Leccisotti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.115.166884","article-title":"Additional Heparin Preadministration Improves Cardiac Glucose Metabolism Suppression over Low-Carbohydrate Diet Alone in 18F-FDG PET Imaging","volume":"57","author":"Scholtens","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2021.09.029","article-title":"Best practice for imaging cardiac device-related infections and endocarditis: A JACC Cardiovascular Expert Panel Statement","volume":"15","author":"Dilsizian","year":"2022","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jev186","article-title":"Effect of antibiotics on FDG-PET\/CT imaging of prosthetic heart valve endocarditis","volume":"16","author":"Scholtens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.035032","article-title":"Improving the Diagnostic Performance of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron-Emission Tomography\/Computed Tomography in Prosthetic Heart Valve Endocarditis","volume":"138","author":"Swart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-007-0504-4","article-title":"Does chemotherapy influence the quantification of SUV when contrast-enhanced CT is used in PET\/CT in lymphoma?","volume":"34","author":"Vera","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-017-1176-5","article-title":"Attenuation correction and metal artifact reduction in FDG PET\/CT for prosthetic heart valve and cardiac implantable device endocarditis","volume":"25","author":"Scholtens","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-018-0956-0","article-title":"18F-FDG-PET\/CT Imaging to Diagnose Septic Emboli and Mycotic Aneurysms in Patients with Endocarditis and Cardiac Device Infections","volume":"20","author":"Mikail","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.06.050","article-title":"Prognostic Value of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography\/Computed Tomography in Infective Endocarditis","volume":"74","author":"San","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2020.06.036","article-title":"ECG-Gated Cardiac FDG PET Acquisitions Significantly Improve Detectability of Infective Endocarditis","volume":"13","author":"Boursier","year":"2020","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.114.140707","article-title":"18F-FDG PET\/CT for the Detection of Septic Embolisms in Patients with Infectious Endocarditis","volume":"55","author":"Kouijzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2014.08.012","article-title":"The role of FDG-PET\/CT imaging in early detection of extra-cardiac complications of infective endocarditis","volume":"21","author":"Orvin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2096","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-023-03339-8","article-title":"Real world experience of therapeutic monitoring of medically treated prosthetic valve infective endocarditis by 18F-FDG-PET\/CT","volume":"30","author":"Bucy","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.5603\/CJ.a2021.0054","article-title":"Long-term antibiotic therapy in patients with surgery-indicated not undergoing surgery infective endocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Camazon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cardiol. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2020.09.021","article-title":"Meta-Analysis of the Diagnostic Performance of 18F-FDG-PET\/CT Imaging in Native Valve Endocarditis","volume":"14","author":"Albano","year":"2021","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz267","article-title":"The Role of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography\/Computed Tomography in the Diagnosis of Left-sided Endocarditis: Native vs Prosthetic Valves Endocarditis","volume":"70","author":"Bitencourt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-020-01334-w","article-title":"Detection of Native and Prosthetic Valve Endocarditis: Incremental Attributes of Functional FDG PET\/CT over Morphologic Imaging","volume":"22","author":"Abikhzer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E010600","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCIMAGING.120.010600","article-title":"Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis by Subtype Using 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography\/Computed Tomography: A Contemporary Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30141-4","article-title":"Diagnostic value of imaging in infective endocarditis: A systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Gomes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2017.08.008","article-title":"18F-FDG-PET\/CT angiography in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis and cardiac device infection in adult patients with congenital heart disease and prosthetic material","volume":"248","author":"Pizzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.01.092","article-title":"Positron emission tomography\/computed tomography for diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis: Increased valvular 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake as a novel major criterion","volume":"61","author":"Saby","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.114.141895","article-title":"Respective performance of 18F-FDG PET and radiolabeled leukocyte scintigraphy for the diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis","volume":"55","author":"Rouzet","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.04.028","article-title":"18-Fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography: An additional tool in the diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Ricciardi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartoletti, M., Tumietto, F., Fasulo, G., Giannella, M., Cristini, F., Bonfiglioli, R., Raumer, L., Nanni, C., Sanfilippo, S., and Di Eusanio, M. (2014). Combined computed tomography and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis: A case series. BMC Res. Notes, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-7-32"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jez222","article-title":"Morpho-metabolic post-surgical patterns of non-infected prosthetic heart valves by [18F]FDG PET\/CTA: \u201cnormality\u201d is a possible diagnosis","volume":"21","author":"Roque","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2258","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-019-02025-y","article-title":"Normal imaging findings after aortic valve implantation on 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography with computed tomography","volume":"28","author":"Wahadat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-019-01963-x","article-title":"Added value of 18F-FDG-PET\/CT and cardiac CTA in suspected transcatheter aortic valve endocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Wahadat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i409","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jeaa356.349","article-title":"Characterization of 18-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake pattern in infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation","volume":"22","author":"San","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2020.01.020","article-title":"FDG-PET\/CT for the Detection of Infection Following Aortic Root Replacement Surgery","volume":"13","author":"Lucinian","year":"2020","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2003.06.005","article-title":"Increasing rates of cardiac device infections among Medicare beneficiaries: 1990\u20131999","volume":"147","author":"Cabell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2011.04.033","article-title":"16-year trends in the infection burden for pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in the United States 1993 to 2008","volume":"58","author":"Greenspon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1007\/s12350-017-1092-8","article-title":"Meta-analysis of 18F-FDG PET\/CT in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis","volume":"26","author":"Mahmood","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2017.10.116","article-title":"Molecular Imaging for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"253","author":"Juneau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2011.03.062","article-title":"Positron emission tomography in patients with suspected pacing system infections may play a critical role in difficult cases","volume":"8","author":"Ploux","year":"2011","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-020-04930-8","article-title":"The value of 18F-FDG PET\/CT for the diagnosis of device-related infections in patients with a left ventricular assist device: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"Hove","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2018.01.024","article-title":"FDG PET\/CT for early detection and localization of left ventricular assist device infection: Impact on patient management and outcome","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.119.237628","article-title":"18 F-FDG PET\/CT in left-ventricular assist device infection: Initial results supporting the usefulness of image-guided therapy","volume":"61","author":"Sohns","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2023.01.020","article-title":"18F-FDG-Based Radiomics and Machine Learning: Useful Help for Aortic Prosthetic Valve Infective Endocarditis Diagnosis?","volume":"16","author":"Godefroy","year":"2023","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Auletta, S., Varani, M., Horvat, R., Galli, F., Signore, A., and Hess, S. (2019). PET Radiopharmaceuticals for Specific Bacteria Imaging: A Systematic Review. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8020197"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259ra146","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3009815","article-title":"Imaging enterobacteriaceae infection in vivo with 18F-fluorodeoxysorbitol positron emission tomography","volume":"6","author":"Weinstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.117.191452","article-title":"Specific Imaging of Bacterial Infection Using 6\u2033-18F-Fluoromaltotriose: A Second-Generation PET Tracer Targeting the Maltodextrin Transporter in Bacteria","volume":"58","author":"Gowrishankar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.8b00061","article-title":"[11C]Para-Aminobenzoic Acid: A Positron Emission Tomography Tracer Targeting Bacteria-Specific Metabolism","volume":"4","author":"Mutch","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.116.181792","article-title":"A systematic approach for developing bacteria-specific imaging tracers","volume":"58","author":"Ordonez","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Ordonez, A.A., Smith-Jones, P., Wang, H., Gogarty, K.R., Daryaee, F., Bambarger, L.E., Chang, Y.S., Jain, S.K., and Tonge, P.J. (2017). The biodistribution of 5-[18F] fluoropyrazinamide in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected mice determined by positron emission tomography. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170871"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/13\/14\/4124\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:17:02Z","timestamp":1760109422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/13\/14\/4124"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm13144124"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm13144124","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]]}}}