{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T17:18:24Z","timestamp":1780420704498,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: This study explores the relationship between cognitive performance measured by the Symbol Digit Modality Test (SDMT) and the severity of self-reported head injury, traumatic brain injury (TBI), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, pain, and psychosocial dysfunction in a population of trauma-affected refugees. Refugees, especially those who have been subjected to torture, often face various difficulties, such as PTSD, depression and somatic disturbances (e.g., pain), which can significantly impact their day-to-day functioning. Methods: Participants included 141 adult refugees (38% women) with a mean age of 45.4 years (SD = 9.4) and 9.7 years (SD = 4.9) of education who were referred for treatment of post-traumatic distress to DIGNITY, Danish Institute Against Torture. Participants completed standardized self-report measures of PTSD, anxiety, depression, pain, and health-related disability and measures of trauma history, physical injuries including head injury and loss of consciousness, and the SDMT, a quick standardized performance-based measure of cognitive impairment. Results: Eighty-eight percent of participants evidenced signs of substantial cognitive impairment as indexed by lower SDMT scores. Those with a self-reported history of TBI, marked by loss of consciousness, exhibited lower SDMT scores and higher health-related disabilities. Severity of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and pain were highly correlated with lower SDMT scores. TBI history was not significantly associated with the severity of PTSD, depression, anxiety, or pain, suggesting a complex interplay among these factors. Conclusions: Cognitive impairments are prevalent in trauma-affected refugees, interacting with symptoms of post-traumatic stress and pain, likely explaining the high disability levels in this population. Further research should employ a broader range of cognitive measures and detailed investigations of head injury\/TBI experiences to investigate their impact on overall functioning, treatment response, and longer-term outcomes. This study adds to a small but growing body of studies documenting cognitive impairments in trauma-affected refugees, highlighting the importance of addressing cognitive impairments in treatment for trauma-affected refugees, particularly those with histories of torture and TBI. Clinicians working with trauma-affected refugees should consider the assessment of cognitive difficulties as part of comprehensive care planning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13175096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T03:57:06Z","timestamp":1724817426000},"page":"5096","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Severe Cognitive Impairment in Trauma-Affected Refugees\u2014Exploring the Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8533-520X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linda","family":"Nordin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DIGNITY\u2014Danish Institute Against Torture, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Lund University, 221-00 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8681-9066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00f8ren Kit","family":"Bothe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DIGNITY\u2014Danish Institute Against Torture, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5468-4706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sean","family":"Perrin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Lund University, 221-00 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8785-1937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ia","family":"Rorsman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, Sk\u00e5ne University Hospital, 221-85 Lund, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences Neurology, Lund University, 221-85 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)61027-6","article-title":"Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: A systematic review","volume":"365","author":"Fazel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1132","article-title":"Association of Torture and Other Potentially Traumatic Events with Mental Health Outcomes Among Populations Exposed to Mass Conflict and Displacement: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"302","author":"Steel","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20476","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance is related to current social and occupational functioning in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"26","author":"Geuze","year":"2009","journal-title":"Depress. 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