{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T04:15:52Z","timestamp":1791778552733,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"State Assignment of the Institute of Experimental Medicine","award":["1022041101001-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1022041101001-1"]}]},{"name":"State Assignment of the Institute of Experimental Medicine","award":["075-15-2024-631"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2024-631"]}]},{"name":"the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","award":["1022041101001-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1022041101001-1"]}]},{"name":"the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","award":["075-15-2024-631"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2024-631"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sarcoidosis is a systemic inflammatory disease with an unknown etiology and a wide range of clinical manifestations. The incidence of sarcoidosis ranges from approximately 1 to 15 cases per 100,000 individuals per year worldwide. The significant variability in clinical presentations and target organs, as well as concomitant diseases, greatly complicates diagnosis. We analyzed articles in PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Embase, where databases were searched using the keywords \u201cchronic sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201cdiagnosis of sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201ccourse of sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201cpulmonary sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201ccardiac sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201cskin sarcoidosis\u201d, \u201cneurosarcoidosis\u201d, \u201cocular sarcoidosis\u201d, and \u201cautoimmune inflammation\u201d. Studies on the course and diagnosis of sarcoidosis with a deep search of ten years were included. In this review, we present an analysis of publications on the course and diagnosis of chronic sarcoidosis, as well as a clinical case. We have noted that the diagnosis of chronic sarcoidosis is particularly difficult due to the lack of specific biomarkers or their combination. The development and introduction of new diagnostic criteria for this disease will contribute to increasing the level of efficiency, not only of the diagnostic complex, but also the prognosis of the development and course of the pathological process. Conclusion: For the most accurate diagnosis and determination of prognosis, the existence of a single immunological or imaging marker with sufficient sensitivity and specificity is necessary.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13226974","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T11:58:07Z","timestamp":1732017487000},"page":"6974","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Chronic Sarcoidosis: Diagnostic Difficulties and Search for New Criteria of Inflammatory Activity (A Case Report and Literature Review)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9023-6986","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Starshinova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia"},{"name":"Almazov National Medical Research Centre, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizaveta","family":"Berg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Almazov National Medical Research Centre, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8493-5211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artem","family":"Rubinstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Institution of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Kulpina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia"},{"name":"Almazov National Medical Research Centre, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Kudryavtsev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Almazov National Medical Research Centre, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Immunology, Institution of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1878-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitry","family":"Kudlay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacy, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119991, Russia"},{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Moscow 115478, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"66","article-title":"Epidemiology of sarcoidosis in the Russian Federation","volume":"10","author":"Vizel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Mod. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hena, K.M. (2020). Sarcoidosis Epidemiology: Race Matters. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.537382"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inaoka, P.T., Shono, M., Kamada, M., and Espinoza, J.L. (2019). Host-microbe interactions in the pathogenesis and clinical course of sarcoidosis. J. 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