{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T05:15:59Z","timestamp":1791263759224,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":227,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]],"date-time":"2024-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Rijeka","award":["uniri-iskusni-biomed-23-61"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["uniri-iskusni-biomed-23-61"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) is the leading cause of thyroid dysfunction globally, characterized primarily by two distinct clinical manifestations: Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis (HT) and Graves\u2019 disease (GD). The prevalence of AITD is approximately twice as high in women compared to men, with a particularly pronounced risk during the reproductive years. Pregnancy exerts profound effects on thyroid physiology and immune regulation due to hormonal fluctuations and immune adaptations aimed at fostering maternal\u2013fetal tolerance, potentially triggering or exacerbating AITD. The impact of AITD on pregnancy outcomes is multifaceted. Both HT and GD have been associated with adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes, including miscarriage, preterm delivery, preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. Inadequately managed AITD can also affect fetal neurodevelopment due to disrupted maternal thyroid hormone availability during critical periods of brain maturation. This review explores the complex interplay between the genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors that drive AITD during pregnancy, highlighting their roles in disease development and impacts on pregnancy outcomes. Gaining a deeper understanding of these mechanisms is crucial for improving diagnostic tools, treatment options and preventive measures to enhance the health and well-being of both the mother and the newborn.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14010190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]],"date-time":"2024-12-31T10:17:40Z","timestamp":1735640260000},"page":"190","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Autoimmune Thyroid Disease and Pregnancy: The Interaction Between Genetics, Epigenetics and Environmental Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4152-7928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatjana","family":"Bogovi\u0107 Crn\u010di\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2591-7267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bo\u017eena","family":"\u0106urko-Cofek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Immunology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2837-4157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lara","family":"Bati\u010di\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Chemistry, Biochemistry and Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neva","family":"Girotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology Diagnostics, Faculty of Health Studies, University of Rijeka, Viktora Cara Emina 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5863-9251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja Ili\u0107","family":"Toma\u0161","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antea","family":"Kr\u0161ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ines","family":"Kri\u0161tofi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tea","family":"\u0160timac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9669-1173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivona","family":"Peri\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, Clinical Hospital Centre Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2645-5364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vlatka","family":"Soto\u0161ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Reanimatology, Emergency and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medical Sciences II, Faculty of Health Studies, University of Rijeka, Viktora Cara Emina 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0287-4735","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanja","family":"Klobu\u010dar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, Clinical Hospital Centre Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"},{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Bra\u0107e Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e210024","article-title":"Cellular and molecular basis of thyroid autoimmunity","volume":"11","author":"Godlewska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. 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