{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T17:32:57Z","timestamp":1787506377687,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]],"date-time":"2025-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Cardiovascular diseases are a leading cause of death, and psychosocial stress is considered a contributing factor to these issues. With the rising number of heart surgeries, proper rehabilitation post-surgery is essential. Previous studies have demonstrated the positive impact of yoga and transcendental meditation on the cardiovascular system. This pilot study aimed to investigate the effects of yoga and transcendental meditation on retinal microcirculation in cardiac patients before (admission), after (discharge), and following (3 weeks after discharge) rehabilitation. Methods: This study examined changes in retinal microcirculation in three rehabilitation groups of patients after heart surgery. The control group received standard exercise therapy, while the meditation group incorporated 20 min of meditation, and the yoga group incorporated 20 min of yoga practice, twice per day for the duration of four weeks of rehabilitation. Retinal images were captured using a non-mydriatic digital retinal camera (Canon CR-2, Canon Medical Systems Europe B.V., Netherlands), and the microcirculation parameters central retinal artery equivalent, central retinal vein equivalent, and artery-to-vein ratio were analyzed using MONA REVA software ((version 2.1.1), VITO, Mol, Belgium). Repeated measures ANOVA was performed to evaluate differences between the three groups in the course of rehabilitation. Results: None of the parameters revealed significant differences in retinal microcirculation between the three rehabilitation groups. Conclusions: The study evaluating changes in retinal microcirculation, as an indicator of central circulation in cardiac patients undergoing rehabilitation, did not observe any significant changes. As yoga and meditation are underestimated approaches in cardiac rehabilitation, this pilot study acts as a basis for providing preliminary information for future studies to encourage the research community to fill the gap in this area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14010232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]],"date-time":"2025-01-03T05:02:02Z","timestamp":1735880522000},"page":"232","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Randomized Trial: A Pilot Study Investigating the Effects of Transcendental Meditation and Yoga Through Retinal Microcirculation in Cardiac Rehabilitation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1496-8813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Salo\u0148","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"},{"name":"Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway"},{"name":"Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3422-0031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karin","family":"Schmid-Zalaudek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7308-5450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bianca","family":"Steuber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maximilian Elliot","family":"Rudlof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Till Olaf","family":"Bartel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petra","family":"M\u00e4chler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Center for Cardiovascular Disease, 8061 St. Radegund, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Dorr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Center for Cardiovascular Disease, 8061 St. Radegund, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rainer","family":"Picha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Center for Cardiovascular Disease, 8061 St. Radegund, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Per Morten","family":"Fredriksen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4805-4051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benedicta Ngwenchi","family":"Nkeh-Chungag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Walter Sisulu University PBX1, Mthatha 5117, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6704-0723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nandu","family":"Goswami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gravitational Physiology and Medicine Research Unit, Division of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"},{"name":"Center for Space and Aviation Health, College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai 505055, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.11.010","article-title":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors, 1990\u20132019: Update From the GBD 2019 Study","volume":"76","author":"Roth","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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