{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T22:20:47Z","timestamp":1791930047228,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]],"date-time":"2025-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736380800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In immunocompromised patients, pneumonia presents a diagnostic challenge due to diverse etiologies, nonspecific symptoms, overlapping radiological presentation, frequent co-infections, and the potential for rapid progression to severe disease. Thus, timely and accurate diagnosis of all pathogens is crucial. This narrative review explores the latest advancements in microbiological diagnostic techniques for pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. It covers major available microbiological tools for diagnosing both community-acquired and hospital-acquired pneumonia, encompassing a wide spectrum of pathogens including bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic. While traditional culture methods remain pivotal in identifying many pneumonia-causing etiologies, their limitations in sensitivity and time to results have led to the rise of non-invasive antigen tests and molecular diagnostics. These are increasingly employed alongside cultures and microscopy for more efficient diagnosis, mainly in viral and fungal infections. Lastly, we report the future of pneumonia diagnostics, exploring the potential of metagenomics and CRISPR\/Cas13a for more precise and rapid pathogen detection in immunocompromised populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14020389","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]],"date-time":"2025-01-09T11:29:37Z","timestamp":1736422177000},"page":"389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Diagnostic Approach to Pneumonia in Immunocompromised Hosts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0030-7953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadir","family":"Ullah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ludovica","family":"Fusco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4181-4938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Ametrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1940-5620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Bartalucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2385-1759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele Roberto","family":"Giacobbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0697-3992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Vena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5535-4602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Mikulska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Bassetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"UO Clinica Malattie Infettive, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s41479-016-0012-z","article-title":"The Definition and Classification of Pneumonia","volume":"8","author":"Mackenzie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pneumonia (Nathan)"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30345-X","article-title":"Acute Respiratory Failure in Immunocompromised Adults","volume":"7","author":"Azoulay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. 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