{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T00:38:45Z","timestamp":1792283925991,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dyslipidemia is a metabolic disorder characterized by quantitative and\/or qualitative abnormalities in serum lipid levels. Elevated serum cholesterol levels can modify the turnover and recruitment of ionic channels in myocytes and cellular homeostasis, including those of inflammatory cells. Experimental and clinical data indicate that inflammation is implicated in the pathophysiology of atrial remodeling, which is the substrate of atrial fibrillation (AF). Data about the association between increased lipid serum levels and AF are few and contrasting. Lipoprotein (a), adiposity, and inflammation seem to be the main drivers of AF; in contrast, low-density lipoproteins, high-density lipoproteins and triglycerides are not directly involved in AF onset. The present review aimed to describe the pathophysiological link between dyslipidemia and AF, the efficacy of lipid-lowering therapies in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) patients with and without AF, and the impact of lipid-lowering therapies on AF incidence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14051652","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T08:05:54Z","timestamp":1740729954000},"page":"1652","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Serum Lipids, Inflammation, and the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation: Pathophysiological Links and Clinical Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7060-6938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfredo","family":"Mauriello","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Department of Medical and Translational Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Cardiology and Intensive Care Unit, Department of Cardiology, \u201cUmberto I\u201d Hospital, 84014 Nocera Inferiore, Italy"},{"name":"Intensive Cardiac Care Unit, \u201cSan Giuseppe Moscati\u201d Hospital, ASL Caserta 81031 Aversa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adriana","family":"Correra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intensive Cardiac Care Unit, \u201cSan Giuseppe Moscati\u201d Hospital, ASL Caserta 81031 Aversa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Chiara","family":"Maratea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Department of Medical and Translational Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7761-7533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfredo","family":"Caturano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Piazza Luigi Miraglia 2, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Biagio","family":"Liccardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Department of Medical and Translational Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0511-2621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco Alfonso","family":"Perrone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology and CardioLab, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5959-016X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Giordano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1776-8449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerardo","family":"Nigro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Department of Medical and Translational Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9698-9145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonello","family":"D\u2019Andrea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology and Intensive Care Unit, Department of Cardiology, \u201cUmberto I\u201d Hospital, 84014 Nocera Inferiore, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9227-0360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Russo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, Department of Medical and Translational Sciences, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, Monaldi Hospital, 80131 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias: Lipid Modification to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii29","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartjsupp\/suae036.065","article-title":"Hypertriglyceridemia in Patients with Acute and Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Prevalence and Their Association with Extreme Cardiovascular Risk and Left Ventricular Functionhypertriglyceridemia in Patients with Acute and Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Prevalence","volume":"26","author":"Maloberti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-024-01802-x","article-title":"Dyslipidemia and Associated Factors among Adult Cardiac Patients: A Hospital-Based Comparative Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"29","author":"Abera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040583","article-title":"Intensive Versus Moderate Lipid Lowering with Statins After Acute Coronary Syndromes","volume":"350","author":"Cannon","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2387","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1410489","article-title":"Ezetimibe Added to Statin Therapy after Acute Coronary Syndromes","volume":"372","author":"Cannon","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cholesterol Treatment Trialists\u2019 (CTT) (2010). Collaboration Efficacy and Safety of More Intensive Lowering of LDL Cholesterol: A Meta-Analysis of Data from 170 000 Participants in 26 Randomised Trials. Lancet, 376, 1670\u20131681.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61350-5"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043826","article-title":"Effect of Alirocumab on Stroke in ODYSSEY OUTCOMES","volume":"140","author":"Jukema","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1801174","article-title":"Alirocumab and Cardiovascular Outcomes after Acute Coronary Syndrome","volume":"379","author":"Schwartz","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1615664","article-title":"Evolocumab and Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"376","author":"Sabatine","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61177-6","article-title":"Triglycerides and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"384","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.23430","article-title":"Lipid Levels and Risk of New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis","volume":"43","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mauriello, A., Ascrizzi, A., Roma, A.S., Molinari, R., Caturano, A., Imbalzano, E., D\u2019Andrea, A., and Russo, V. (2024). Effects of Heart Failure Therapies on Atrial Fibrillation: Biological and Clinical Perspectives. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13070806"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2008.04.013","article-title":"Molecular Basis of Funny Current (If) in Normal and Failing Human Heart","volume":"45","author":"Stillitano","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.107.754788","article-title":"Calcium-Handling Abnormalities Underlying Atrial Arrhythmogenesis and Contractile Dysfunction in Dogs with Congestive Heart Failure","volume":"1","author":"Yeh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8167.2008.01211.x","article-title":"Sudden Death in a Young Man with Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia and Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"19","author":"Pizzale","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2264","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.019893","article-title":"Atrial Fibrillation Pathophysiology: Implications for Management","volume":"124","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mauriello, A., Correra, A., Molinari, R., Del Vecchio, G.E., Tessitore, V., D\u2019Andrea, A., and Russo, V. (2024). Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Atrial Fibrillation: The Need for a Strong Pharmacological Approach. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202411.0599.v1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvq329","article-title":"Molecular Determinants of Cardiac Fibroblast Electrical Function and Therapeutic Implications for Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"89","author":"Yue","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mauriello, A., Correra, A., Ascrizzi, A., Del Vecchio, G.E., Benfari, G., Ilardi, F., Lisi, M., Malagoli, A., Mandoli, G.E., and Pastore, M.C. (2024). Relationship Between Left Atrial Strain and Atrial Fibrillation: The Role of Stress Echocardiography. Diagnostics, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202412.0234.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jeac123","article-title":"How to Assess Left Ventricular Filling Pressures by Echocardiography in Clinical Practice","volume":"23","author":"Popescu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccl.2008.09.003","article-title":"New Concepts in Atrial Fibrillation: Neural Mechanisms and Calcium Dynamics","volume":"27","author":"Chou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cardiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e73","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.0000019783.88094.BA","article-title":"Cholinergic Atrial Fibrillation in a Computer Model of a Two-Dimensional Sheet of Canine Atrial Cells with Realistic Ionic Properties","volume":"90","author":"Kneller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Craig, M., Yarrarapu, S.N.S., and Dimri, M. (2024). Biochemistry, Cholesterol, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levitan, I., Fang, Y., Rosenhouse-Dantsker, A., and Romanenko, V. (2010). Cholesterol and Ion Channels. Cholesterol Binding and Cholesterol Transport Proteins: Structure and Function in Health and Disease, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8622-8_19"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2020.02.007","article-title":"Cholesterol Handling in Lysosomes and Beyond","volume":"30","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.5966\/sctm.2013-0205","article-title":"Cholesterol and Hematopoietic Stem Cells: Inflammatory Mediators of Atherosclerosis","volume":"3","author":"Lang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032636","article-title":"Cholesterol Efflux Pathways Suppress Inflammasome Activation, NETosis, and Atherogenesis","volume":"138","author":"Westerterp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.793869","article-title":"Increased Inflammatory Gene Expression in ABC Transporter\u2013Deficient Macrophages","volume":"118","author":"Welch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4309","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab465","article-title":"Impact of Cholesterol on Proinflammatory Monocyte Production by the Bone Marrow","volume":"42","author":"Stiekema","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hagan, R., Berg, A.R., Hong, C.G., Parel, P.M., Mehta, N.N., and Teague, H.L. (2022). Systemic Consequences of Abnormal Cholesterol Handling: Interdependent Pathways of Inflammation and Dyslipidemia. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.972140"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2013.03.031","article-title":"Hypercholesterolemia and Reduced HDL-C Promote Hematopoietic Stem Cell Proliferation and Monocytosis: Studies in Mice and FH Children","volume":"229","author":"Tolani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.113.301086","article-title":"Deficiency of ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters A1 and G1 in Macrophages Increases Inflammation and Accelerates Atherosclerosis in Mice","volume":"112","author":"Westerterp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.115.002751","article-title":"Dyscholesterolemia Protects Against Ischemia-Induced Ventricular Arrhythmias","volume":"8","author":"Baartscheer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.114.304959","article-title":"Increased Systemic and Plaque Inflammation in ABCA1 Mutation Carriers with Attenuation by Statins","volume":"35","author":"Bochem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2012.08.1026","article-title":"Remnant Cholesterol as a Causal Risk Factor for Ischemic Heart Disease","volume":"61","author":"Varbo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.116.308834","article-title":"Remnant Cholesterol Elicits Arterial Wall Inflammation and a Multilevel Cellular Immune Response in Humans","volume":"37","author":"Verweij","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.003008","article-title":"Elevated Remnant Cholesterol Causes Both Low-Grade Inflammation and Ischemic Heart Disease, Whereas Elevated Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Causes Ischemic Heart Disease Without Inflammation","volume":"128","author":"Varbo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"76","article-title":"Lipoprotein (a): Structure, Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications","volume":"103","author":"Carvalho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04668-w","article-title":"Deep Coverage Whole Genome Sequences and Plasma Lipoprotein(a) in Individuals of European and African Ancestries","volume":"9","author":"Zekavat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vph.2022.106975","article-title":"Endothelial Dysfunction in Acute and Long Standing COVID\u221219: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"144","author":"Oikonomou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.12.15.1765","article-title":"Expression of Adhesion Molecules by Lp(a): A Potential Novel Mechanism for Its Atherogenicity","volume":"12","author":"Allen","year":"1998","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.97.8.721","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) Enhances the Expression of Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 in Cultured Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells","volume":"97","author":"Takami","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.05-4857fje","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) in Atherosclerotic Plaques Recruits Inflammatory Cells through Interaction with Mac-1 Integrin","volume":"20","author":"Sotiriou","year":"2006","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.14712\/23362936.2019.9","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a)\u2014Link Between Atherogenesis and Thrombosis","volume":"120","author":"Labudovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prague Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2015.2","article-title":"Inflammation and the Pathogenesis of Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"12","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Russo, V., Falco, L., Tessitore, V., Mauriello, A., Catapano, D., Napolitano, N., Tariq, M., Caturano, A., Ciccarelli, G., and D\u2019Andrea, A. (2023). Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Effects of Anticoagulant Therapy in Patients with Malignancy. Life, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/life13091888"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Russo, V., Napolitano, N., Ascrizzi, A., Leonardi, S., Pisacane, F., Di Micco, P., Imbalzano, E., Sasso, F.C., D\u2019Andrea, A., and Caturano, A. (2024). The Lipid-Lowering Efficacy of a Nutraceutical Combination Including Leucoselect Phytosome, Red Yeast Rice, Policosanol and Folic Acid in Dyslipidaemia Patients: Real-World Insights. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17040447"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conte, M., Petraglia, L., Poggio, P., Valerio, V., Cabaro, S., Campana, P., Comentale, G., Attena, E., Russo, V., and Pilato, E. (2022). Inflammation and Cardiovascular Diseases in the Elderly: The Role of Epicardial Adipose Tissue. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.844266"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parisi, V., Conte, M., Petraglia, L., Grieco, F.V., Bruzzese, D., Caruso, A., Grimaldi, M.G., Campana, P., Gargiulo, P., and Paolillo, S. (2020). Echocardiographic Epicardial Adipose Tissue Thickness for Risk Stratification of Patients with Heart Failure. Front. Physiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.00043"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpcardio0319","article-title":"Epicardial Adipose Tissue: Anatomic, Biomolecular and Clinical Relationships with the Heart","volume":"2","author":"Iacobellis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1089\/met.2020.0008","article-title":"Associations of Visceral, Subcutaneous, Epicardial, and Liver Fat with Metabolic Disorders up to 14 Years After Weight Loss Surgery","volume":"19","author":"Hunt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4689","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2006-0584","article-title":"Myocardial Triglyceride Content and Epicardial Fat Mass in Human Obesity: Relationship to Left Ventricular Function and Serum Free Fatty Acid Levels","volume":"91","author":"Lehto","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conte, M., Petraglia, L., Cabaro, S., Valerio, V., Poggio, P., Pilato, E., Attena, E., Russo, V., Ferro, A., and Formisano, P. (2022). Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Cardiac Arrhythmias: Focus on Atrial Fibrillation. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.932262"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukuta, H., Goto, T., and Kamiya, T. (2023). Association of Epicardial Fat with Cardiac Structure and Function and Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0283482"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2019.08.007","article-title":"Validation of the Echocardiographic Assessment of Epicardial Adipose Tissue Thickness at the Rindfleisch Fold for the Prediction of Coronary Artery Disease","volume":"30","author":"Parisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2012.11.062","article-title":"Association of Epicardial Fat with Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Incident Myocardial Infarction in the General Population","volume":"61","author":"Mahabadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1294","article-title":"Epicardial Fat and Atrial Fibrillation: Current Evidence, Potential Mechanisms, Clinical Implications, and Future Directions","volume":"38","author":"Wong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H202","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00120.2010","article-title":"Proteomic Analysis of Epicardial and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Reveals Differences in Proteins Involved in Oxidative Stress","volume":"299","author":"Eiras","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2017.08.006","article-title":"Pericardial Adipose and Aromatase: A New Translational Target for Aging, Obesity and Arrhythmogenesis?","volume":"111","author":"Bernasochi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2018.09.089","article-title":"Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Cardiovascular Diseases","volume":"278","author":"Ansaldo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10840-016-0130-9","article-title":"Anatomical Proximity Between Ganglionated Plexi and Epicardial Adipose Tissue in the Left Atrium: Implication for 3D Reconstructed Epicardial Adipose Tissue-Based Ablation","volume":"47","author":"Takahashi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Interv. Card. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/pace.12512","article-title":"Arrhythmogenic Evidence for Epicardial Adipose Tissue: Heart Rate Variability and Turbulence Are Influenced by Epicardial Fat Thickness","volume":"38","author":"Akinci","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-09-0967","article-title":"Effect of Epicardial Fat Pad Ablation on Acute Atrial Electrical Remodeling and Inducibility of Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"74","author":"Chang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvac093","article-title":"Adiposity-Associated Atrial Fibrillation: Molecular Determinants, Mechanisms, and Clinical Significance","volume":"119","author":"Saljic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(02)01003-1","article-title":"Clinical and Pathophysiological Consequences of Abdominal Adiposity and Abdominal Adipose Tissue Depots","volume":"19","author":"Misra","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5662","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-020635","article-title":"Differential Regulation of Adiponectin Secretion from Cultured Human Omental and Subcutaneous Adipocytes: Effects of Insulin and Rosiglitazone","volume":"87","author":"Motoshima","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R284","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00257.2017","article-title":"Adipose Cell Size: Importance in Health and Disease","volume":"315","author":"Stenkula","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2751","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1920004117","article-title":"Regulation of Adipose Tissue Inflammation by Interleukin 6","volume":"117","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192644","article-title":"Harmonizing the Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"120","author":"Alberti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engin, A. (2017). The Definition and Prevalence of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. Obesity and Lipotoxicity, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-48382-5"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.013771","article-title":"Variations in Circulating Inflammatory Factors Are Related to Changes in Calorie and Carbohydrate Intakes Early in the Course of Surgery-Induced Weight Reduction","volume":"94","author":"Dalmas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-019-03926-0","article-title":"Effect of Bariatric Surgery on Serum Inflammatory Factors of Obese Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"29","author":"Askarpour","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803000","article-title":"CRP Reduction Following Gastric Bypass Surgery Is Most Pronounced in Insulin-Sensitive Subjects","volume":"29","author":"Holdstock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-021-01215-8","article-title":"Cumulative Burden of Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components on the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation: A Nationwide Population-Based Study","volume":"20","author":"Ahn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e020901","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.121.020901","article-title":"Association Between Change in Metabolic Syndrome Status and Risk of Incident Atrial Fibrillation: A Nationwide Population-Based Study","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.22864","article-title":"Lipid Profile and Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation: A Prospective Cohort Study in China","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.72.909","article-title":"Prevalence of Atrial Fibrillation in Community-Dwelling Japanese Aged 40 Years or Older in Japan Analysis of 41,436 Non-Employee Residents in Kurashiki-City","volume":"72","author":"Iguchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw333","article-title":"Cohort Profile: The AMORIS Cohort","volume":"46","author":"Walldius","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2021.02.011","article-title":"Causal Effects of Plasma Lipids on the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation: A Multivariable Mendelian Randomization Study","volume":"31","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpcardiol.2023.102024","article-title":"Association Between Lipoprotein (a) and Risk of Atrial Fibrillation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mendelian Randomization Studies","volume":"49","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1582-4934.2001.tb00172.x","article-title":"Statins: Mechanism of Action and Effects","volume":"5","author":"Stancu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cholesterol Treatment Trialists\u2019 (CTT) Collaborators (2005). Efficacy and Safety of Cholesterol-Lowering Treatment: Prospective Meta-Analysis of Data from 90,056 Participants in 14 Randomised Trials of Statins. Lancet, 366, 1267\u20131278.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67394-1"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.308537","article-title":"Pleiotropic Effects of Statins on the Cardiovascular System","volume":"120","author":"Oesterle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.15.10.1652","article-title":"Nitric Oxide Protects Against Leukocyte-Endothelium Interactions in the Early Stages of Hypercholesterolemia","volume":"15","author":"Gauthier","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2005.07.002","article-title":"Statins Prevent Pulsatile Stretch-Induced Proliferation of Human Saphenous Vein Smooth Muscle Cells via Inhibition of Rho\/Rho-Kinase Pathway","volume":"68","author":"Kozai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000043456.48735.20","article-title":"HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors Regulate Inflammatory Transcription Factors in Human Endothelial and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells","volume":"23","author":"Dichtl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(97)00129-0","article-title":"Platelet-Dependent Thrombin Generation in Patients with Hyperlipidemia","volume":"30","author":"Aoki","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.repc.2020.11.010","article-title":"Update on the Efficacy of Statins in Primary and Secondary Prevention of Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"40","author":"Oraii","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Port. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"642","article-title":"Analysis of Dyslipidemia Management Status in Atrial Fibrillation Patients with Very High and High Risk of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"51","author":"Chang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2017.09.001","article-title":"Targeting ATP-Citrate Lyase in Hyperlipidemia and Metabolic Disorders","volume":"23","author":"Pinkosky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2215024","article-title":"Bempedoic Acid and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Statin-Intolerant Patients","volume":"388","author":"Nissen","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2023.10.011","article-title":"Safety of Bempedoic Acid in Patients at High Cardiovascular Risk and with Statin Intolerance","volume":"18","author":"Bays","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3909\/ricm19S1S0002","article-title":"PCSK9 Inhibitors: Mechanism of Action, Efficacy, and Safety","volume":"19","author":"Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjcvp\/pvz022","article-title":"PCSK9 and Inflammation: A Review of Experimental and Clinical Evidence","volume":"5","author":"Gotto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvz313","article-title":"PCSK9 and Inflammation: Role of Shear Stress, Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines, and LOX-1","volume":"116","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2023.09.007","article-title":"Evolocumab Prevents Atrial Fibrillation in Rheumatoid Arthritis Rats through Restraint of PCSK9 Induced Atrial Remodeling","volume":"61","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2022.02.016","article-title":"Effect of Alirocumab on Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation After Acute Coronary Syndromes: Insights from the ODYSSEY OUTCOMES Trial","volume":"135","author":"Lopes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1159\/000538551","article-title":"Drug Target Mendelian Randomization Study of PCSK9 and HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibition and Atrial Fibrillation","volume":"149","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cardiology"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s10557-022-07338-8","article-title":"Effect of PCSK9 Monoclonal Antibody Versus Placebo\/Ezetimibe on Atrial Fibrillation in Patients at High Cardiovascular Risk: A Meta-Analysis of 26 Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"37","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1913805","article-title":"Inclisiran for the Treatment of Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia","volume":"382","author":"Raal","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1912387","article-title":"Two Phase 3 Trials of Inclisiran in Patients with Elevated LDL Cholesterol","volume":"382","author":"Ray","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5047","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehac615","article-title":"Effect of Inclisiran on Lipids in Primary Prevention: The ORION-11 Trial","volume":"43","author":"Ray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capece, U., Gugliandolo, S., Morciano, C., Avolio, A., Splendore, A., Di Giuseppe, G., Ciccarelli, G., Soldovieri, L., Brunetti, M., and Mezza, T. (2024). Erythrocyte Membrane Fluidity and Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake: Current Outlook and Perspectives for a Novel, Nutritionally Modifiable Cardiovascular Risk Factor. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16244318"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.119.313286","article-title":"Emerging Mechanisms of Cardiovascular Protection for the Omega-3 Fatty Acid Eicosapentaenoic Acid","volume":"40","author":"Mason","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2007.11.008","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Coronary Heart Disease Risk: Clinical and Mechanistic Perspectives","volume":"197","author":"Harris","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2005.12.027","article-title":"Antiarrhythmic Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids","volume":"98","author":"Reiffel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20160474","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Inflammatory Processes: From Molecules to Man","volume":"45","author":"Calder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/79.6.935","article-title":"Dietary Long-Chain N\u22123 Fatty Acids for the Prevention of Cancer: A Review of Potential Mechanisms","volume":"79","author":"Larsson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-020-00865-5","article-title":"Impact of Different Doses of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Pairwise and Network Meta-Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Lombardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1367437","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Reduce the Incidence of Postoperative Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with History of Prior Myocardial Infarction Undergoing Isolated Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting","volume":"62","author":"Wilbring","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Costanzo, A., Indolfi, C., Sorrentino, S., Esposito, G., and Spaccarotella, C.A.M. (2023). The Effects of Statins, Ezetimibe, PCSK9-Inhibitors, Inclisiran, and Icosapent Ethyl on Platelet Function. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241411739"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2023.108439","article-title":"Icosapent Ethyl in Cardiovascular Prevention: Resolution of Inflammation through the Eicosapentaenoic Acid\u2014Resolvin E1\u2014ChemR23 Axis","volume":"247","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehad889","article-title":"Icosapent Ethyl Following Acute Coronary Syndrome: The REDUCE-IT Trial","volume":"45","author":"Sayah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e026756","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.121.026756","article-title":"Cardiovascular Benefits of Icosapent Ethyl in Patients with and Without Atrial Fibrillation in REDUCE-IT","volume":"12","author":"Olshansky","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2023.01.010","article-title":"Gene Editing for Dyslipidemias: New Tools to \u201cCut\u201d Lipids","volume":"368","author":"Stankov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/5\/1652\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:44:40Z","timestamp":1760028280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/5\/1652"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14051652"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14051652","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]}}}