{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T13:56:25Z","timestamp":1767707785307,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742947200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Neurological and Stroke Disorders (NINDS) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"]}]},{"name":"NIH","award":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R43NS132718","1S10-OD034302-01","I01-CX000499","I01-RX001988","MHBA-010-14F","NURC-022-10F","NEUC-044-06S"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: Currently, there are no proven solutions to remediate cognitive deficits in people with a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). One common issue is visual timing deficits, which may be due to processing deficits in dorsal visual pathways. Methods: This study investigates whether a new intervention (PATH) aimed at improving these visual timing deficits is more effective than conventional cognitive therapies that either remediate: (1) pattern discrimination deficits (ventral visual pathway): Orientation Discrimination (OD), or (2) working memory deficits using ReCollect task, for 10 subjects between the ages of 26\u201360 years old. This study tests the ability of three different cognitive therapies to improve the primary outcome: visual working memory (VWM), and secondary outcomes: processing speed, auditory working memory, and selective attention in mTBI subjects based on neuropsychological tests administered before and after 36 30-min training sessions Monday, Wednesday and Friday mornings. Results: On average, the PATH group exhibited a 35% improvement in VWM, compared to 15% for ReCollect and 5% for OD. A repeated-measures ANOVA found that improving dorsal stream function improved VWM significantly more than found after the other two interventions. The results reveal the importance of strengthening dorsal pathways more than conventional cognitive therapies to improve cognitive skills after mTBI. A biomarker, MagnetoEncephaloGraphy (MEG) brain recordings, using an N-Back task for subjects in treatment groups, verified these improvements as well. Conclusions: The data from this preliminary study are very promising for a new method improving the brain\u2019s timing, more effective than conventional therapies, to improve cognitive deficits in mTBI patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14072273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T03:35:28Z","timestamp":1743132928000},"page":"2273","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Retraining Dorsal Visual Pathways Improves Cognitive Skills After a Mild Traumatic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Teri","family":"Lawton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive Neuroscience Research and Remediation, Perception Dynamics Institute, Encinitas, CA 92023, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5853-1010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Shelley-Tremblay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, UCOM 1123, Mobile, AL 36688, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, University of South Alabama, UCOM 1123, Mobile, AL 36688, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5628-4151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roland R.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA 92161, USA"},{"name":"Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ming-Xiong","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA 92161, USA"},{"name":"Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"177","article-title":"Mild traumatic brain injury in 2019\u20132020","volume":"323","author":"Silverberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Faul, M., Xu, L., Wald, M.M., and Coronado, V.G. (2010). Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths 2002\u20132006, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2018.1522671","article-title":"Critical appraisal of systematic reviews of executive function treatments in TBI","volume":"32","author":"Raymer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s11940-006-0031-9","article-title":"Management of concussion and post-concussion syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Willer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arciniega, H., Shires, J., Furlong, S., Kilgore-Gomez, A., Cerreta, A., Murray, N.G., and Berryhill, M.E. (2021). Impaired visual working memory and reduced connectivity in undergraduates with a history of mild traumatic brain injury. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-80995-1"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hallock, H., Collins, D., Lampit, A., Deol, K., Fleming, J., and Valenzuela, M. (2016). Cognitive training for post-acute traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00537"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000203","article-title":"Computerized cognitive rehabilitation of attention and executive function in acquired brain injury: A systematic review","volume":"31","author":"Bogdanova","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buitenweg, J.I.V., Murre, J.M.J., and Ridderinkhof, K.R. (2012). Brain training in progress: A review of trainability in healthy seniors. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00183"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"103","article-title":"Do \u201cBrain-Training\u201d Programs Work?","volume":"17","author":"Simons","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1144677","article-title":"Neuroscience. Neural networks debunk phrenology","volume":"316","author":"Knight","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1080\/09602010701748644","article-title":"Intervention for executive functions after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review, meta-analysis and clinical recommendations","volume":"18","author":"Kennedy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e3181c133e9","article-title":"Cognitive outcome following traumatic brain injury","volume":"24","author":"Dikman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhy075","article-title":"MEG Working Memory N-Back Task Reveals Functional Deficits in Combat-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"29","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001094","article-title":"Visually evoked potential markers of concussion history in patients with convergence insufficiency","volume":"94","author":"Poltavski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"71","article-title":"Dynamic cognitive remediation for a traumatic brain injury (TBI) significantly improves attention, working memory, processing speed, and reading fluency","volume":"37","author":"Lawton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"257","article-title":"Clinical practice guidelines for mild traumatic brain injury and persistent symptoms","volume":"58","author":"Marshall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/1.1.1","article-title":"Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex","volume":"1","author":"Felleman","year":"1991","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3215","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.15-04-03215.1995","article-title":"Functional analysis of human MT and related visual cortical areas using magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"15","author":"Tootell","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9801","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2069-10.2010","article-title":"The retinotopic organization of the human middle temporal area MT\/V5 and its cortical neighbors","volume":"30","author":"Kolster","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3283936","article-title":"Segregation of color, form, movement and depth: Anatomy, physiology, and perception","volume":"240","author":"Livingstone","year":"1988","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.16.030193.002101","article-title":"How parallel are the primate visual pathways?","volume":"16","author":"Merigan","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidyasagar, T.R. (2013). Reading into neuronal oscillations in the visual system: Implications for developmental dyslexia. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00811"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-010-0262-0","article-title":"Saliency, switching, attention and control: A network model of insula function","volume":"214","author":"Menon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Lawton, T. (2015). Diagnosing and Remediating Cognitive Deficits Involving Attention, Sequential Processing, Reading, Speed of Processing, and Navigation. (8979263B2), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"142","article-title":"Improving magnocellular function in the dorsal stream remediates reading deficits","volume":"42","author":"Lawton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Develop."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawton, T. (2016). Improving dorsal stream function in dyslexics by training figure\/ground motion discrimination improves attention, reading fluency, and working memory. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00397"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawton, T., and Shelley-Tremblay, J. (2017). Training on movement figure-ground discrimination remediates low-level visual timing deficits in the dorsal stream, improving high-level cognitive functioning, including attention, reading fluency, and memory. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00236"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"82","article-title":"Training direction discrimination improves usable field of view, short term memory, and navigation in older adults","volume":"40","author":"Lawton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1037\/a0013659","article-title":"Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation following acquired brain injury: A meta-analytic re-examination of Cicerone et al.\u2019s (2000, 2005) systematic reviews","volume":"23","author":"Rohling","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"435","article-title":"Cognitive plasticity in adulthood and old age: Gauging the generality of cognitive intervention effects","volume":"27","author":"Noack","year":"2009","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawton, T., Shelley-Tremblay, J., and Huang, M.-X. (2023). Case Report: Neural Timing Deficits Prevalent in Developmental Disorders, Aging, and Concussions Remediated Rapidly By Movement Discrimination Exercises. Front. Neurol. NeuroRehab., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.898781"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.09.022","article-title":"MEG source imaging method using fast L1 minimum-norm and its applications to signals with brain noise and human resting-state source amplitude images","volume":"84","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2016.02.007","article-title":"High-resolution MEG source imaging approach to accurately localize Broca\u2019s area in patients with brain tumor or epilepsy","volume":"127","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.03.003","article-title":"Injured Brains and Adaptive Networks: The Benefits and Costs of Hyperconnectivity","volume":"21","author":"Hillary","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2008.0672","article-title":"Integrated imaging approach with MEG and DTI to detect mild traumatic brain injury in military and civilian patients","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2015.02.008","article-title":"The role of biomarkers and MEG-based imaging markers in the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder and blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"63","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2014.06.004","article-title":"Single-subject-based whole-brain MEG slow-wave imaging approach for detecting abnormality in patients with mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.04.029","article-title":"An automatic MEG low-frequency source imaging approach for detecting injuries in mild and moderate TBI patients with blast and non-blast causes","volume":"61","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2014.3654","article-title":"Magnetoencephalography Slow-Wave Detection in Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Ongoing Symptoms Correlated with Long-Term Neuropsychological Outcome","volume":"32","author":"Nichols","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhz087","article-title":"Marked Increases in Resting-State MEG Gamma-Band Activity in Combat-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"30","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2017.1363409","article-title":"A pilot treatment study for mild traumatic brain injury: Neuroimaging changes detected by MEG after low-intensity pulse-based transcranial electrical stimulation","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.2.001140","article-title":"Spatial frequency spectrum of patterns changes the visibility of spatial-phase differences","volume":"2","author":"Lawton","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1109\/10.16458","article-title":"Outputs of paired Gabor filters summed across background frame of reference predicts direction of movement","volume":"36","author":"Lawton","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2015.1089598","article-title":"Cognitive reserve and persistent post-concussion symptoms\u2014A prospective mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) cohort study","volume":"30","author":"Oldenburg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine (ACRM) (1993). Definition of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J. Head Trauma Rehabil., 8, 86\u201387.","DOI":"10.1097\/00001199-199309000-00010"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1411","article-title":"What attributes guide the deployment of visual attention and how do they do it?","volume":"5","author":"Wolfe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidyasagar, T.R., and Levichkina, E. (2019). An integrated neuronal model of claustral function in timing the synchrony between cortical areas. Front. Neural Circuits, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2019.00003"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"9","article-title":"Visual Neural Timing Problems May Interfere with Reading, Attention, and Memory: Looking Beyond 20\/20 Acuity","volume":"10","author":"Lawton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Perform."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465-020-00196-y","article-title":"Multisensory Facilitation of Working Memory Training","volume":"5","author":"Pahor","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Enhanc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465-019-00134-7","article-title":"Divergent research methods limit understanding of working memory training","volume":"4","author":"Pergher","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Enhanc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(84)90099-3","article-title":"The effect of phase structures on spatial phase discrimination","volume":"24","author":"Lawton","year":"1984","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1984.01040030837028","article-title":"Spatial Contrast Sensitivity","volume":"102","author":"Higgins","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthal."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2755","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.83.8.2755","article-title":"The primate retina contains two types of ganglion cells, with high- and low-contrast sensitivity","volume":"83","author":"Kaplan","year":"1986","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Ingle, D.J., Goodale, M.A., and Mansfield, R.J.W. (1982). Two cortical visual systems. Analysis of Visual Behavior, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.09.001","article-title":"The functional role of cross-frequency coupling","volume":"14","author":"Canolty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.09.001","article-title":"Neural cross-frequency coupling: Connecting architectures, mechanisms and function","volume":"38","author":"Hyafil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6829","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0801268105","article-title":"Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory","volume":"105","author":"Jaeggi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034913","article-title":"Dose-response relationship of working memory training and improvements in fluid intelligence: A randomized controlled study in old adults","volume":"50","author":"Stepankova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Develop. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10081","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1103228108","article-title":"Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training","volume":"108","author":"Jaeggi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-012-0335-6","article-title":"Dual n-back training increases the capacity of the focus of attention","volume":"20","author":"Lilienthal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rudebeck, S.R., Bor, D., Ormond, A., O\u2019Reilly, J.X., and Lee, A.C.H. (2012). A Potential Spatial Working Memory Training Task to Improve Both Episodic Memory and Fluid Intelligence. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050431"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2013.05.006","article-title":"Improved matrix reasoning is limited to training on tasks with a visuospatial component","volume":"41","author":"Stephenson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8705","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5565-12.2013","article-title":"Strengthened effective connectivity underlies transfer of working memory training to tests of short-term memory and attention","volume":"33","author":"Kundu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3297","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4611-09.2010","article-title":"Training of working memory impacts structural connectivity","volume":"30","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhr037","article-title":"Separating intra-modal and across-modal training effects in visual working memory: An fMRI investigation","volume":"21","author":"Schneiders","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027473","article-title":"Is working memory training effective?","volume":"138","author":"Shipstead","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029082","article-title":"No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study","volume":"142","author":"Redick","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-014-0699-x","article-title":"Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Au","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614548725","article-title":"Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults","volume":"25","author":"Karbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2014.02.004","article-title":"The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Kelly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peitz, G.W., Wilde, E.A., and Grandhi, R. (2021). Magnetoencephalography in the Detection and characterization of brain abnormalities associated with traumatic brain injury: A comprehensive review. Med. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci9010007"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-012-9156-5","article-title":"A review of magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging findings in mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"6","author":"Shenton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2011.635354","article-title":"Post-concussion syndrome: Prevalence after mild traumatic brain injury and the role of dorsal stream deficits","volume":"26","author":"Dean","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"260","article-title":"Visual impairments following mild traumatic brain injury: A critical review","volume":"14","author":"Cavanaugh","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Sport Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(92)90344-8","article-title":"Separate visual pathways for perception and action","volume":"15","author":"Goodale","year":"1992","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2005.10.010","article-title":"Neural mechanisms of imitation","volume":"15","author":"Iacoboni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062111-150525","article-title":"The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after","volume":"35","author":"Petersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.12.003","article-title":"Mapping the functional connectome in traumatic brain injury: What can graph metrics tell us?","volume":"160","author":"Caeyenberghs","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"45","article-title":"Hyperconnectivity is a fundamental response to neurological disruption","volume":"25","author":"Hillary","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2017.13","article-title":"The far-reaching scope of neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury","volume":"13","author":"Simon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"15","article-title":"Neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury: The good, the bad, and the ugly","volume":"49","author":"Levin","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"207","article-title":"The impact of cognitive training on cognitive and functional abilities in older adults with mild cognitive impairment","volume":"20","author":"Twamley","year":"2014","journal-title":"JINS"},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"345","article-title":"Hyperconnectivity as a mechanism of compensation following mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"16","author":"Hillary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"144","article-title":"Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and recovery after brain injury: Molecular mechanisms and clinical applications","volume":"112","author":"Fisher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"223","article-title":"Factors associated with long-term cognitive functioning following moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"31","author":"Landau","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/7\/2273\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:02:39Z","timestamp":1760029359000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/7\/2273"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14072273"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14072273","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2077-0383"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]}}}