{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T18:59:58Z","timestamp":1789153198188,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745884800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Concern over COVID-19\u2019s long-term influence on women\u2019s reproductive health is growing, with emerging research suggesting potential links to ovarian dysfunction, menstrual irregularities, fertility challenges, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Post-viral immune dysregulation is linked to both the development and exacerbation of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Long COVID has been associated with immunological dysfunction, hormonal imbalances, and chronic inflammation, all of which may worsen autoimmune disorders and reproductive health issues. Long COVID is characterized by symptoms persisting for weeks or months beyond the acute infection phase. There are indications that prolonged COVID may contribute to autoimmune disease development through mechanisms such as immune hyperactivation, molecular mimicry, and dysregulated cytokine responses. Although this research field is still emerging, growing evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 infection may have lasting effects on women\u2019s health, highlighting the need for further studies into its underlying mechanisms and long-term clinical outcomes. This review compiles recent findings on the long-term impact of COVID-19 on women\u2019s reproductive health and its potential association with autoimmune disorders, particularly MS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14093057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T05:17:12Z","timestamp":1745903832000},"page":"3057","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Long-Term Effects of COVID-19 on Women\u2019s Reproductive Health and Its Association with Autoimmune Diseases, Including Multiple Sclerosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Efthalia","family":"Moustakli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofoklis","family":"Stavros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University General Hospital \u201cATTIKON\u201d, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4241-8953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theologos M.","family":"Michaelidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Applications & Technology, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7716-1521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasios","family":"Potiris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University General Hospital \u201cATTIKON\u201d, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2990-640X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chrysi","family":"Christodoulaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University General Hospital \u201cATTIKON\u201d, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5287-4450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Zachariou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Drakakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University General Hospital \u201cATTIKON\u201d, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1350-4182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Zikopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical School, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ekaterini","family":"Domali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Alexandra Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9553-6803","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Zikopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University General Hospital \u201cATTIKON\u201d, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09944-5","article-title":"The Natural History, Pathobiology, and Clinical Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 Infections","volume":"15","author":"Machhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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