{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T05:55:25Z","timestamp":1773726925947,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750636800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Chronotype reflects individual variations in daily activity and sleep patterns, influenced by underlying circadian rhythms. While chronotype is often reduced to the morningness\u2013eveningness spectrum, recent evidence suggests more diverse circadian typologies. Chronotype is linked to mental health, frequently associated with psychiatric disorders such as depression and suicide. This study aims to examine differences among six chronotypes (as defined by Single-Item Chronotyping) in mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, interpersonal relations, general functioning, suicidal behavior, and suicide acceptance. Methods: The study sample consisted of 306 young adults. Chronotype was determined using the Polish version of Single-Item Chronotyping (SIC). Mental health was assessed with the 30-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30), which evaluates three dimensions: depression and anxiety, interpersonal relations, and general functioning. The Suicide Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ-R) measured past and potential future suicidal tendencies, while the Suicide Acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ) assessed attitudes toward the act of suicide. Results: The \u201cdaytime sleepy\u201d and \u201cmoderately active\u201d chronotypes were identified as at higher risk for mental health issues. These types exhibited greater levels of depression and anxiety, more general dysfunction, and a higher risk of suicidal behavior. The \u201cdaytime sleepy\u201d type also experienced more interpersonal relationship difficulties compared to the \u201cdaytime active\u201d type. Conclusions: Recognizing the \u201cdaytime sleepy\u201d and \u201cmoderately active\u201d types as risk factors highlights the importance of considering chronotype in mental health assessments. The SIC provides a concise method for monitoring circadian rhythm changes during treatment, facilitating tailored interventions such as modifying treatment schedules or lifestyle adjustments in alignment with an individual\u2019s circadian rhythm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14134447","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T07:42:34Z","timestamp":1750664554000},"page":"4447","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Association Between Mental Health Indices and the Chronotypes Measured by Single-Item Chronotyping in Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3564-2818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Nowakowska-Domaga\u0142a","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Lodz, Rodziny Scheibler\u00f3w 2, 90-128 Lodz, Poland"},{"name":"Mental Health Clinic, National Institute of Medicine of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration in Warsaw, 13 Wo\u0142oska Street, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2490-5133","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Jura\u015b-Darowny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Lodz, Rodziny Scheibler\u00f3w 2, 90-128 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jacek","family":"Koprowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Clinic, National Institute of Medicine of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration in Warsaw, 13 Wo\u0142oska Street, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Lewandowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"J. Babi\u0144ski Specialist Psychiatric Health Care Team, Psychiatric Ward for Children, Aleksandrowska 159, 02-229 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tadeusz","family":"Pietras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Lodz, 22 Kopci\u0144skiego Street, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1331-8408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Mokros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Medical University of Lodz, Czechoslowacka Str 8\/10, 92-216 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montaruli, A., Castelli, L., Mul\u00e8, A., Scurati, R., Esposito, F., Galasso, L., and Roveda, E. (2021). Biological rhythm and chronotype: New perspectives in health. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11040487"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2018.1470531","article-title":"Chronotype and depressive symptoms in students: An investigation of possible mechanisms","volume":"35","author":"Antypa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13598","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.13598","article-title":"The Two-process Model of Sleep Regulation: Beginnings and Outlook","volume":"31","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chauhan, S., Norbury, R., Fa\u00dfbender, K.C., Ettinger, U., and Kumari, V. (2023). Beyond sleep: A multidimensional model of chronotype. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 148.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105114"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/s40675-018-0113-8","article-title":"Chronotype and Psychiatric Disorders","volume":"4","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Sleep Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, H., Zhou, H., Yan, R., Yao, Z., and Lu, Q. (2022). Chronotype, circadian rhythm, and psychiatric disorders: Recent evidence and potential mechanisms. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.811771"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Putilov, A.A., and Donskaya, O.G. (2022). What Can Make the Difference Between Chronotypes in Sleep Duration? Testing the Similarity of Their Homeostatic Processes. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.832807"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.3109\/07420528.2016.1171233","article-title":"Morningness\u2013eveningness and amplitude\u2014Development and validation of an improved composite scale to measure circadian preference and stability (MESSi)","volume":"33","author":"Randler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1080\/09291016.2023.2177028","article-title":"A new approach to chronotype measurement\u2014The Polish version of the Single Item Chronotyping (SIC) tool","volume":"54","author":"Pietras","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Rhythm. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2021.1964518","article-title":"When early and late risers were left to their own devices: Six distinct chronotypes under \u201clockdown\u201d remained dissimilar on their sleep and health problems","volume":"39","author":"Putilov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2020.110353","article-title":"Single-Item Chronotyping (SIC), a method to self-assess diurnal types by using 6 simple charts","volume":"168","author":"Putilov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"97","article-title":"A self assessment questionnaire to determine Morningness Eveningness in human circadian rhythms","volume":"4","author":"Horne","year":"1976","journal-title":"Int. J. Chronobiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.74.5.728","article-title":"Evaluation of three circadian rhythm questionnaires with suggestions for an improved measure of morningness","volume":"74","author":"Smith","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.09.002","article-title":"Chronotype, circadian rhythms and mood","volume":"34","author":"Bauducco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2023.05.020","article-title":"Can morning affect protect us from suicide? The mediating role of general mental health in the relationship between chronotype and suicidal behavior among students","volume":"163","author":"Podlecka","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2020.1798978","article-title":"Morning affect, eveningness, and amplitude distinctness: Associations with negative emotionality, including the mediating roles of sleep quality, personality, and metacognitive beliefs","volume":"37","author":"Carciofo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.3109\/08039488.2015.1112832","article-title":"Eveningness and poor sleep quality independently contribute to self-reported depression severity in psychiatric inpatients with affective disorder","volume":"70","author":"Kundermann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nord. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/s44184-024-00076-9","article-title":"Sleep quality mediates the association between chronotype and mental health in young Indian adults","volume":"3","author":"Chauhan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Npj Ment. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14100","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.14100","article-title":"Why Do Owls Have It Worse? Mediating Role of Self-perceptions in the Links between Diurnal Preference and Features of Mental Health","volume":"33","author":"Gorgol","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2022.2123740","article-title":"Analyzing Social Perception of Chronotypes within the Stereotype Content Model","volume":"39","author":"Stolarski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2011.03.004","article-title":"Circadian rhythms, sleep, and substance abuse","volume":"16","author":"Hasler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Goldberg, D. (1972). The Detection of Psychiatric Illness by Questionnaire, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"37","article-title":"W\u0142a\u015bciwo\u015bci dyskryminacyjne Kwestionariusza Og\u00f3lnego Zdrowia","volume":"12","year":"2003","journal-title":"Post. Psychiatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"621","article-title":"W\u0142a\u015bciwo\u015bci dyskryminacyjne polskiej wersji Kwestionariusza Og\u00f3lnego Zdrowia (GHQ-30) dla r\u00f3\u017cnych metod zliczania punkt\u00f3w","volume":"12","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"341","article-title":"Struktura czynnikowa Kwestionariusza Og\u00f3lnego Zdrowia (GHQ-30) Factorial Structure of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30)","volume":"44","author":"Frydecka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1177\/107319110100800409","article-title":"The Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R):Validation with Clinical and Nonclinical Samples","volume":"8","author":"Osman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/OnlineFirst\/93492","article-title":"The Polish adaptation of the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised by A. Osman et al","volume":"54","author":"Chodkiewicz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1007\/s10597-019-00507-4","article-title":"Psychometric Properties of the Suicide Acceptance Questionnaire","volume":"56","author":"Stecz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Community Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsac221","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsac221","article-title":"Excessive Daytime Sleepiness Mediates the Relationship between Insomnia Symptoms and Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/15402002.2022.2050724","article-title":"Nighttime Sleep Quality and Daytime Sleepiness Predicts Suicide Risk in Adults Admitted to an Inpatient Psychiatric Hospital","volume":"21","author":"Shepard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walsh, R.F.L., Maddox, M.A., Smith, L.T., Liu, R.T., and Alloy, L.B. (2024). Social and Circadian Rhythm Dysregulation and Suicide: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 158.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105560"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perotta, B., Arantes-Costa, F.M., Enns, S.C., Figueiro-Filho, E.A., Paro, H., Santos, I.S., Lorenzi-Filho, G., Martins, M.A., and Tempski, P.Z. (2021). Sleepiness, Sleep Deprivation, Quality of Life, Mental Symptoms and Perception of Academic Environment in Medical Students. BMC Med. Educ., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-021-02544-8"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Zhang, Q., Zhu, L., Zeng, G., Huang, H., Zhuge, J., Kuang, X., Yang, S., Yang, D., and Chen, Z. (2022). Daytime Naps and Depression Risk: A Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1051128"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21209","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2004535117","article-title":"Sleepiness, Sleep Duration, and Human Social Activity: An Investigation into Bidirectionality Using Longitudinal Time-Use Data","volume":"117","author":"Holding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13152","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.13152","article-title":"Self-reported Sleep Quality Is More Closely Associated with Mental and Physical Health than Chronotype and Sleep Duration in Young Adults: A Multi-instrument Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Muzni","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2022.2121657","article-title":"Circadian Preference in Young Adults: Associations with Sleep and Mental Health Outcomes from a National Survey of Norwegian University Students","volume":"39","author":"Vedaa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-90918-1.00016-2","article-title":"Rhythms of Light: Understanding the Role of Circadian Timing in Alertness and Cognitive Performance","volume":"Volume 206","author":"Lok","year":"2025","journal-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2017.1278704","article-title":"Owls, larks, swifts, woodcocks and they are not alone: A historical review of methodology for multidimensional self-assessment of individual differences in sleep-wake pattern","volume":"Volume 34","author":"Putilov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chronobiology International"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2014.08.003","article-title":"How many diurnal types are there? A search for two further \u201cbird species\u201d","volume":"72","author":"Putilov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2022.111581","article-title":"Morningness-eveningness preference and shift in chronotype during COVID-19 as predictors of mood and well-being in university students","volume":"191","author":"Hasan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2019.05.001","article-title":"Resetting the late timing of \u2018night owls\u2019 has a positive impact on mental health and performance","volume":"60","author":"Middleton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/27.6.1077","article-title":"Complete or Partial Circadian Re-entrainment Improves Performance, Alertness, and Mood During Night-Shift Work","volume":"27","author":"Crowley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dose, B., Yal\u00e7in, M., Dries, S.P.M., and Rel\u00f3gio, A. (2023). TimeTeller for timing health: The potential of circadian medicine to improve performance, prevent disease and optimize treatment. Front. Digit. Health, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2023.1157654"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2009.36","article-title":"Cross-National Associations Between Gender and Mental Disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys","volume":"66","author":"Seedat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2019.1585867","article-title":"Gender Differences in Chronotype Diminish with Age: A Meta-Analysis Based on Morningness\/Chronotype Questionnaires","volume":"36","author":"Randler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e464","DOI":"10.4317\/jced.59049","article-title":"Relationship of Excessive Daytime Sleepiness with Bruxism, Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Sex in Odontology Students\u2014A Cross Sectional Study","volume":"14","author":"Turcio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Dent."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.3109\/07420528.2012.719971","article-title":"Circadian Typology: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"29","author":"Adan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22682","article-title":"The relationship between depression and chronotype: A longitudinal assessment during childhood and adolescence","volume":"34","author":"Haraden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/13\/4447\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:56:57Z","timestamp":1760032617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/13\/4447"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14134447"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14134447","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]}}}