{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T06:01:26Z","timestamp":1791525686796,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]],"date-time":"2025-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758499200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Childhood obesity and cardiometabolic disturbances are growing global health concerns. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of excess body weight, body fat, and selected cardiometabolic risk factors in school-aged children and adolescents, focusing on sex- and age-related differences. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 318 Polish participants aged 6\u201317 years, including 169 children (6\u201312 years) and 149 adolescents (13\u201317 years). Anthropometric, blood pressure (BP), and fasting blood lipid and glucose measurements were collected and analyzed by age group (children 6\u201312 years; adolescents 13\u201317 years) and sex. Results: The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 18.5% (BMI-based) and 26.1% (body fat-based). Abdominal obesity and stage I\u2013II hypertension were observed in 24.5% and 23.6% of participants, respectively. Children had higher rates of excess body fat, abdominal obesity, elevated BP, and lipid abnormalities than adolescents. Among adolescents, girls more frequently presented with borderline\/high total cholesterol and Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol) and borderline\/low High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol), while boys more often had elevated BP. In girls, elevated triglycerides (TGs) were independently associated with abdominal obesity (odds ratio (OR) = 2.36, p = 0.015) and hypertension (OR = 2.47, p = 0.023); no such associations were observed in boys. Conclusions: Cardiometabolic risk factors may appear early in life and differ by age and sex. Routine screening and early interventions, particularly targeting lipid abnormalities in girls, are essential to prevent long-term health consequences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14186677","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]],"date-time":"2025-09-22T17:08:17Z","timestamp":1758560897000},"page":"6677","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Lipid Profile, Obesity Indicators and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in School-Aged Children and Adolescents: Sex-Specific Associations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9638-9505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Baran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Kopisto Avenue 2a, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8354-1651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Baran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Kopisto Avenue 2a, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8769-0048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justyna","family":"Leszczak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Kopisto Avenue 2a, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2359-7818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Bartosiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Kopisto Avenue 2a, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5786-6214","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justyna","family":"Wyszy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Kopisto Avenue 2a, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e594","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2801","article-title":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. Identifying risk for obesity in early childhood","volume":"118","author":"Nader","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, June 15). Obesity and Overweight 2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/obesity-and-overweight."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"GBD 2021 Risk Factor Collaborators (2024). Global Burden of 88 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease study 2021. Lancet, 403, 2162\u20132203."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Balasundaram, P., and Krishna, S. (2025, June 03). Obesity Effects on Child Health, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK570613\/."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC) (2017). Worldwide Trends in Body-Mass Index, Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity from 1975 to 2016: A Pooled Analysis of 2416 Population-Based Measurement Studies in 128.9 Million Children, Adolescents, and Adults. Lancet, 390, 2627\u20132642."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Fija\u0142kowska, A., and Dzielska, A. (2024). Zdrowie Dzieci We Wczesnym Wieku Szkolnym. Raport z Bada\u0144 2022\u20132023, ImiDz. Available online: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1lr6RoM7UdZMvhA8-DK6vAqSPaKhTU7AY\/view."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Fija\u0142kowska, A., Oblaci\u0144ska, A.M., Dzielska, A.M., Na\u0142\u0119cz, H., and Korzycka, M. (2022). Zdrowie Dzieci w Pandemii COVID-19: Raport z Bada\u0144 Dotycz\u0105cych Zdrowia i Zachowa\u0144 Zdrowotnych Dzieci w Wieku 8 Lat Podczas Pandemii COVID-19, ImiDz. Available online: https:\/\/imid.med.pl\/pl\/do-pobrania."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suligowska, K., and Buczny, J. (2022). Obesity in Polish Children and Parents\u2019 Perception of Their Children\u2019s Weight Status: The Results of the SOPKARD-Junior Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19084433"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.5114\/hpc.2021.103707","article-title":"Analysis of the Nutritional Status of Children Aged 10\u201313 Years in the Silesian Province, Poland, and Correlation with Sociodemographic Factors","volume":"15","author":"Jonczyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Probl. Civiliz."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199806043382302","article-title":"Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"338","author":"Berenson","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-7061(95)00116-7","article-title":"Essential hypertension predicted by tracking of elevated blood pressure from childhood to adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"8","author":"Bao","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(95)70020-X","article-title":"Effects of secular trends in obesity on coronary risk factors in children: The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"127","author":"Gidding","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azab, S.M., Shanmuganathan, M., de Souza, R.J., Kroezen, Z., Desai, D., Williams, N.C., Morrison, K.M., Atkinson, S.A., Teo, K.K., and Azad, M.B. (2023). Early sex-dependent differences in metabolic profiles of overweight and adiposity in young children: A cross-sectional analysis. BMC Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-02886-8"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"523","article-title":"Study on the reliability of CardioChek PA for measuring lipid profile","volume":"48","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Peking Univ. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"PTS Diagnostics (2025, June 03). CardioChek PA Test System: User Guide. Indianapolis (IN): PTS Diagnostics. Available online: https:\/\/ptsdiagnostics.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/ps-002461-en_rev._4_user_guide_cardiochek_pa.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, July 07). The WHO STEPqise Approach to NCD Risk Factor Surveillance (STEPS). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/noncommunicable-diseases\/surveillance\/systems-tools\/steps\/manuals."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2014.01.001","article-title":"Management of familial hypercholesterolemia in children and adolescents. Position paper of the Polish Lipid Expert Forum","volume":"8","author":"Walczak","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Polskie Towarzystwo Diabetologiczne (2023). Zalecenia kliniczne dotycz\u0105ce post\u0119powania u os\u00f3b z cukrzyc\u0105\u20142024. Stanowisko Polskiego Towarzystwa Diabetologicznego. Curr. Top. Diabetes, 4, 5\u2013155."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1887","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000001039","article-title":"2016 European Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents","volume":"34","author":"Lurbe","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"100","article-title":"Distribution of blood pressure in school-aged children and adolescents reference population","volume":"7","author":"Litwin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stand. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Marfell-Jones, M., Olds, T., Stewart, A., and Carter, L. (2025, June 27). International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment 2006. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.pl\/books\/about\/International_Standards_for_Anthropometri.html?id=n_3ozgEACAAJ&redir_esc=y."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"137","article-title":"References for waist and hip circumferences in Polish children and adolescents 3\u201318 year of age","volume":"12","author":"Grajda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stand. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"690","article-title":"Percentile charts of height, body mass and body mass index in children and adolescents in Poland\u2014Results of the OLAF study","volume":"7","author":"Palczewska","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stand. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2025, June 27). About Child & Teen BMI 2024, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/bmi\/child-teen-calculator\/bmi-categories.html."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCarthy, H.D., Cole, T.J., Fry, T., Jebb, S.A., and Prentice, A.M. (2006). Body fat reference curves for children. Int. J. Obes., 30.","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803232"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2024.1576","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"178","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farbo, D.J., and Rhea, D.J. (2021). A Pilot Study Examining Body Composition Classification Differences Between Body Mass Index and Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Children with High Levels of Physical Activity. Front. Pediatr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.724053"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.5152\/TurkArchPediatr.2022.21320","article-title":"Comparison of body composition and body mass index in the determination of obesity in schoolchildren","volume":"57","author":"Salman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Turk. Arch. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.7570\/jomes.2018.27.3.143","article-title":"Hypertriglyceridemia in Obese Children and Adolescents","volume":"27","author":"Jung","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Obes. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn, J.T., Kaelber, D.C., Baker-Smith, C.M., Blowey, D., Carroll, A.E., Daniels, S.R., de Ferranti, S.D., Dionne, J.M., Falkner, B., and Flinn, S.K. (2017). Subcommittee on screening and management of high blood pressure in children. Clinical Practice Guideline for Screening and Management of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics, 140.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-1904"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.18544\/PEDM-23.04.0091","article-title":"Epidemiological aspects of obesity and systemic hypertension amongschool children of Western Ukraine","volume":"23","author":"Pavlyshyn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2020.09.017","article-title":"Prevalence of Hypertension and Its Association with Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference Among Adolescents in Turkey: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"57","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcped.2020.10.017","article-title":"Prevalence of obesity and hypertension in children and determination of associated factors by CHAID analysis","volume":"29","author":"Meydanlioglu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6der, H., Juton, C., Goran, M.I., W\u00e4rnberg, J., Os\u00e9s, M., Gonzalez-Gross, M., Gusi, N., Aznar, S., Mar\u00edn-Cascales, E., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Valeiro, M. (2024). Twenty-year trend in the prevalence of increased cardiometabolic risk, measured by abdominal obesity, among Spanish children and adolescents across body mass index categories. BMC Med., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03719-y"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-017-1398-y","article-title":"Prevalence of childhood hypertension and hypertension phenotypes by weight status and waist circumference: The Healthy Growth Study","volume":"57","author":"Manios","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"110","article-title":"Association between adiposity and blood pressure levels between the ages of 6 and 16 years. Analysis in a student population from Madrid, Spain","volume":"66","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, X., Shi, P., Luo, C.Y., Zhou, Y.F., Yu, H.T., Guo, C.Y., and Wu, F. (2013). Prevalence of hypertension in overweight and obese children from a large school-based population in Shanghai, China. BMC Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-24"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487319839264","article-title":"Association between general and central adiposity and development of hypertension in early childhood","volume":"26","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2047-6310.2012.00073.x","article-title":"Adiposity in children and adolescents: Correlates and clinical consequences of fat stored in specific body depots","volume":"7","author":"Katzmarzyk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114508882980","article-title":"Association of different obesity indices with blood pressure and blood lipids in children and adolescents","volume":"100","author":"Landsberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sommer, A., and Twig, G. (2018). The Impact of Childhood and Adolescent Obesity on Cardiovascular Risk in Adulthood: A Systematic Review. Curr. Diabetes Rep., 18.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-018-1062-9"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1001\/archpediatrics.2009.92","article-title":"Sex Differences in Blood Pressure and Its Relationship to Body Composition and Metabolism in Adolescence","volume":"163","author":"Syme","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000019555.61092.9E","article-title":"Cardiovascular health in childhood: A statement for health professionals from the Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association","volume":"106","author":"Williams","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.717033","article-title":"Preventing heart disease in the 21st century: Implications of the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study","volume":"117","author":"McGill","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.8.2341","article-title":"Increased visceral fat and serum levels of triglyceride are associated with insulin resistance in Japanese metabolically obese, normal weight subjects with normal glucose tolerance","volume":"26","author":"Katsuki","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)40053-7","article-title":"Regional variation in adipose tissue metabolism of severely obese premenopausal women","volume":"36","author":"Marette","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/18\/6677\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:13Z","timestamp":1760035633000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/18\/6677"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14186677"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14186677","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]]}}}