{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T20:20:11Z","timestamp":1785356411672,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007801","name":"Comunidad Aut\u00f3noma de la Regi\u00f3n de Murcia through the call for Grants for Projects for the Generation of New Scientific Leadership \u201cYoung Research Leaders\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22080\/JLI\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22080\/JLI\/22"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007801","name":"Comunidad Aut\u00f3noma de la Regi\u00f3n de Murcia through the call for Grants for Projects for the Generation of New Scientific Leadership \u201cYoung Research Leaders\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CP23\/00051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CP23\/00051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Carlos III Health Institute and co-funded by the European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22080\/JLI\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22080\/JLI\/22"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Carlos III Health Institute and co-funded by the European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CP23\/00051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CP23\/00051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries and is an emerging concern in developing regions. Children with excess weight are more likely to maintain this condition over time into adulthood and face a higher risk of developing metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, metabolic dysfunction-associated liver disease, and dyslipidemia. Early identification of obesity risk is, therefore, a key public health challenge. Methods: This is an observational, prospective, single-center cohort pilot study in 66 mother\u2013infant dyads recruited at the Gynecology and Obstetrics Service of the Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital (Murcia, Spain). The primary objective is to identify early-life, non-invasive biomarkers associated with increased adiposity by integrating multi-omics approaches and analyzing maternal\u2013infant interactions. Pregnant women will be enrolled during the third trimester and will undergo a baseline visit at 38 weeks of gestation for clinical and anthropometric assessment. Buccal swabs and fecal samples will be collected at baseline and in the peripartum period for epigenetic (DNA methylation), metagenomic, and metabolomic analyses. Infants will be evaluated at birth and followed at 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years. Each visit will include detailed anthropometric measurements, along with collection of buccal swabs and fecal samples for multi-omics profiling. Conclusions: This multidisciplinary study aims to assess how maternal factors influence infant epigenetic and microbial patterns, and their relation to adiposity development. Early identification of such biomarkers may guide personalized prevention strategies and reduce the long-term burden of obesity-related comorbidities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14196694","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T10:27:53Z","timestamp":1758623273000},"page":"6694","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Dynamics of the Epigenome, Microbiome, and Metabolome in Relation to Early Adiposity in the Maternal\u2013Infant Axis: Protocol for a Prospective, Observational Pilot Study in the Spanish NEMO Cohort"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3977-5009","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Su\u00e1rez-Cort\u00e9s","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Murcia, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Almudena","family":"Juan-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Gynecology and Obstetrics Service, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5134-6333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alonso","family":"Molina-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Murcia, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Ara\u00fajo de Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Service, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda \u00c1ngeles","family":"Casta\u00f1o-Molina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Murcia, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Gynecology and Obstetrics Service, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Virginia Esperanza","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Murcia, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Almudena","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-M\u00e9ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Gynecology and Obstetrics Service, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Mart\u00ednez P\u00e9rez-Munar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4490-1866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Rico-Chazarra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6804-5449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Ramos-Molina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9642-0613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"S\u00e1nchez-Sol\u00eds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Respiratory and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Children\u2019s Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Pediatric Research Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0511-3533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Eliseo","family":"Blanco-Carnero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Murcia Health Service (Servicio Murciano de Salud), 30100 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Gynecology and Obstetrics Service, Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Gynecology, Reproduction, and Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6913-0610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio Jos\u00e9","family":"Ruiz-Alcaraz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology B and Immunology, University of Murcia, 30120 Murcia, Spain"},{"name":"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8938-2767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda \u00c1ngeles","family":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Group, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB) Pascual Parrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, May 02). Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/obesity-and-overweight."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(22)00047-X","article-title":"Obesity in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, causes, assessment, and management","volume":"10","author":"Jebeile","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12649","article-title":"The lifetime costs of overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Hamilton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.2174\/1573396318666220801093225","article-title":"Childhood Obesity: An Updated Review","volume":"20","author":"Leung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S101","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803085","article-title":"Obesity in childhood and vascular changes in adulthood: Insights into the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study","volume":"29","author":"Raitakari","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20173459","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-3459","article-title":"Prevalence of Obesity and Severe Obesity in US Children, 1999\u20132016","volume":"141","author":"Skinner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2061","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa043","article-title":"The Impact of Obesity On Insulin Sensitivity and Secretion During Pubertal Progression: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"105","author":"Kelsey","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"976","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk-factor profiles of normal and overweight children and adolescents: Insights from the Canadian Health Measures Survey","volume":"29","author":"Maximova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v30.i16.2249","article-title":"Association between childhood obesity and gut microbiota: 16S rRNA gene sequencing-based cohort study","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2021.10.002","article-title":"Childhood obesity: An ecological perspective","volume":"98","author":"Sarni","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12205","article-title":"Parental and child genetic contributions to obesity traits in early life based on 83 loci validated in adults: The FAMILY study","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s12263-018-0613-7","article-title":"Genetic risk score for adult body mass index associations with childhood and adolescent weight gain in an African population","volume":"13","author":"Munthali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genes Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.12713","article-title":"Newborn regional body composition is influenced by maternal obesity, gestational weight gain and the birthweight standard score","volume":"103","author":"Carlsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.110551","article-title":"Intake of carbohydrates during pregnancy in obese women is associated with fat mass in the newborn offspring","volume":"102","author":"Renault","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2017.44","article-title":"Infant adiposity following a randomised controlled trial of a behavioural intervention in obese pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"Patel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e141","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.253","article-title":"Longitudinal changes in infant body composition: Association with childhood obesity","volume":"9","author":"Koontz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2017.159","article-title":"Association between supraclavicular brown adipose tissue composition at birth and adiposity gain from birth to 6 months of age","volume":"82","author":"Entringer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200737","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-0737","article-title":"Neonatal Adiposity and Childhood Obesity","volume":"146","author":"Moore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e318225f8a9","article-title":"Longitudinal study of childhood adiposity and the risk of developing components of metabolic syndrome-the Da Qing children cohort study","volume":"70","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174420000707","article-title":"Birth weight, childhood and adolescent growth and diabetes risk factors in 21-year-old Asian Indians: The Pune Children\u2019s Study","volume":"12","author":"Kumaran","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1272","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-2213","article-title":"Birth weight, postnatal weight change, and risk for high blood pressure among chinese children","volume":"127","author":"Bowers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201712-921OC","article-title":"Early Life Weight Gain and Development of Childhood Asthma in a Prospective Birth Cohort","volume":"15","author":"Tsai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2008.03.021","article-title":"Higher adiposity in infancy associated with recurrent wheeze in a prospective cohort of children","volume":"121","author":"Taveras","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-020-00952-z","article-title":"Childhood DNA methylation as a marker of early life rapid weight gain and subsequent overweight","volume":"13","author":"Robinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2014.06.037","article-title":"Maternal obesity and gestational diabetes are associated with placental leptin DNA methylation","volume":"211","author":"Lesseur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-017-1601-1","article-title":"The impact of probiotic supplementation during pregnancy on DNA methylation of obesity-related genes in mothers and their children","volume":"58","author":"Vahamiko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.2337\/db20-0487","article-title":"Lifestyle Intervention in Pregnant Women With Obesity Impacts Cord Blood DNA Methylation, Which Associates With Body Composition in the Offspring","volume":"70","author":"Jonsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02113-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02113-14","article-title":"Gut microbiota as an epigenetic regulator: Pilot study based on whole-genome methylation analysis","volume":"5","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000039","article-title":"The gut microbiota and the metabolic health of the host","volume":"30","author":"Joyce","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmy078","article-title":"Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Obesity: Links with Host Genetics and Epigenetics and Potential Applications","volume":"10","author":"Milagro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00036-17","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00036-17","article-title":"The First Microbial Colonizers of the Human Gut: Composition, Activities, and Health Implications of the Infant Gut Microbiota","volume":"81","author":"Milani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12190","article-title":"Maturation of the enteric mucosal innate immune system during the postnatal period","volume":"260","author":"Fulde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X.A., Li, J.P., Lee, M.S., Yang, S.F., Chang, Y.S., Chen, L., Li, C.W., and Chao, Y.H. (2024). A common trajectory of gut microbiome development during the first month in healthy neonates with limited inter-individual environmental variations. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-53949-6"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.04.004","article-title":"Dynamics and Stabilization of the Human Gut Microbiome during the First Year of Life","volume":"17","author":"Backhed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0107124","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.01071-24","article-title":"First-year dynamics of the anaerobic microbiome and archaeome in infants\u2019 oral and gastrointestinal systems","volume":"10","author":"Neumann","year":"2025","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4578","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000081107","article-title":"Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome","volume":"108","author":"Koenig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2015.12.037","article-title":"Association between the gut microbiota and diet: Fetal life, early childhood, and further life","volume":"32","author":"Kashtanova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Ma, X., Mei, H., Chang, X., He, P., Sun, L., Xiao, H., Wang, S., and Li, R. (2025). Association between gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in children with obesity. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-84207-4"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-019-0059-2","article-title":"Branched chain amino acids impact health and lifespan indirectly via amino acid balance and appetite control","volume":"1","author":"Cogger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bui, T.N.Y., Paul, A., Guleria, S., O\u2019Sullivan, J.M., and Toldi, G. (2025). Short-chain fatty acids-a key link between the gut microbiome and T-lymphocytes in neonates?. Pediatr. Res.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-025-04075-0"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3692","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17183-8","article-title":"Bile acids drive the newborn\u2019s gut microbiota maturation","volume":"11","author":"Schaap","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis, E.C., Hunt, K.J., Grobman, W.A., Skupski, D.W., Mani, A., and Hinkle, S.N. (2024). Maternal Obesity and Differences in Child Urine Metabolome. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14110574"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02419-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02419-14","article-title":"Dynamics of infant gut microbiota are influenced by delivery mode and gestational duration and are associated with subsequent adiposity","volume":"6","author":"Dogra","year":"2015","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raspini, B., Vacca, M., Porri, D., De Giuseppe, R., Calabrese, F.M., Chieppa, M., Liso, M., Cerbo, R.M., Civardi, E., and Garofoli, F. (2021). Early Life Microbiota Colonization at Six Months of Age: A Transitional Time Point. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.590202"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2008.466","article-title":"N-6 from different sources protect from metabolic alterations to obese patients: A factor analysis","volume":"17","author":"Larque","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/22.3.512","article-title":"Development and validation of a food frequency questionnaire in Spain","volume":"22","author":"Boyle","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2024.107828","article-title":"Pregnancy Eating Attitudes-Questionnaire (PEA-Q): Exploratory factor analysis and psychometric performance in a pregnant community sample with body mass index \u2265 25","volume":"206","author":"Call","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2023.04.024","article-title":"Skinfold-based-equations to assess longitudinal body composition in children from birth to age 5 years","volume":"42","author":"Dorrepaal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bullich-Vilarrubias, C., Romani-Perez, M., Lopez-Almela, I., Rubio, T., Garcia, C.J., Tomas-Barberan, F.A., and Sanz, Y. (2024). Nav1.8-expressing neurons control daily oscillations of food intake, body weight and gut microbiota in mice. Commun. Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-05905-3"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-025-01734-7","article-title":"Comprehending the Epidemiology and Aetiology of Childhood Obesity: Integrating Life Course Approaches for Prevention and Intervention","volume":"16","author":"Verma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2482","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2014-2020","article-title":"The Effects of High-Fat Diet Exposure In Utero on the Obesogenic and Diabetogenic Traits Through Epigenetic Changes in Adiponectin and Leptin Gene Expression for Multiple Generations in Female Mice","volume":"156","author":"Masuyama","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franzago, M., Borrelli, P., Di Nicola, M., Cavallo, P., D\u2019Adamo, E., Di Tizio, L., Gazzolo, D., Stuppia, L., and Vitacolonna, E. (2024). From Mother to Child: Epigenetic Signatures of Hyperglycemia and Obesity during Pregnancy. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16203502"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5404","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.16551","article-title":"Gestational high-fat diet impaired demethylation of Pparalpha and induced obesity of offspring","volume":"25","author":"Pang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2020.1790924","article-title":"Prenatal gestational diabetes mellitus exposure and accelerated offspring DNA methylation age in early childhood","volume":"16","author":"Shiau","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pauwels, S., Symons, L., Vanautgaerden, E.L., Ghosh, M., Duca, R.C., Bekaert, B., Freson, K., Huybrechts, I., Langie, S.A.S., and Koppen, G. (2019). The Influence of the Duration of Breastfeeding on the Infant\u2019s Metabolic Epigenome. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061408"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2393270","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2024.2393270","article-title":"The interplay between gut microbiota, short-chain fatty acids, and implications for host health and disease","volume":"16","author":"Hays","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.03.005","article-title":"Crosstalk between Microbiota-Derived Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Intestinal Epithelial HIF Augments Tissue Barrier Function","volume":"17","author":"Kelly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav0558","article-title":"Branched-chain amino acids in disease","volume":"363","author":"White","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.05.005","article-title":"Intestinal Crosstalk between Bile Acids and Microbiota and Its Impact on Host Metabolism","volume":"24","author":"Wahlstrom","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149023","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2149023","article-title":"Microbial bile salt hydrolase activity influences gene expression profiles and gastrointestinal maturation in infant mice","volume":"14","author":"Herisson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/19\/6694\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:31Z","timestamp":1760035651000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/19\/6694"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14196694"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14196694","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]}}}