{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T10:29:59Z","timestamp":1789468199431,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: This review seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of electrical stimulation (ES) in improving upper limb function in children and young people (CYP) with hemiplegic cerebral palsy (HCP). Methods: A systematic literature search from inception until May 2025 was conducted. Various study designs comparing the effect of different ES techniques such as functional electrical stimulation (FES), transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation (TSCS), and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on upper limb function in CYP with HCP were included. Results: Eighteen studies were selected for review and quality assessment, comprising twelve randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and six non-RCTs. FES was shown to improve upper limb function, though more rigorous and controlled research is needed. Both TENS and NMES demonstrate potential to improve upper limb function, particularly when combined with other interventions. The analysis suggests that variability in reporting tDCS outcomes hinders assessment of its potential benefits for improving upper limb function. Conclusions: Current research suggests ES may support upper limb rehabilitation in CYP with HCP, though the overall evidence remains limited. Most studies are small, underpowered, and lack long-term follow-up, limiting confident conclusions. ES should therefore be applied cautiously and only as part of a comprehensive rehabilitation plan.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14196718","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T13:48:37Z","timestamp":1758635317000},"page":"6718","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effectiveness of Electrical Stimulation on Upper Limb Function in Children and Young People with Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6247-7347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omar","family":"Nahhas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"},{"name":"Health Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9443-6934","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah L.","family":"Astill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4389-8290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samit","family":"Chakrabarty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5894-8927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Burdon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4809-2632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Capozio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"183","article-title":"Chapter 18-Cerebral palsy: Definition, assessment and rehabilitation","volume":"111","author":"Richards","year":"2013","journal-title":"Handb. 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