{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]],"date-time":"2026-05-10T17:01:22Z","timestamp":1778432482369,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":201,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Research Ward Excellence Program","award":["BRWEP2024W102170101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BRWEP2024W102170101"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022YFC2603500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2603500"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022YFC2603505"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2603505"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Capital\u2019s Funds for Health Improvement and Research","award":["2022-1-2172"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-1-2172"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Municipal Health Commission high-level public health technical personnel construction project"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009331","name":"Beijing Hospitals Authority Clinical medicine Development of special funding support","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZLRK202301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZLRK202301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009331","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Beijing Hospitals Authority \u201cpeak\u201d talent training program","award":["DFL20241803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DFL20241803"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2023YFC2306900"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC2306900"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["2023YFC2308105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC2308105"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is highly infectious and pathogenic. Novel coronavirus infection can not only cause respiratory diseases but also lead to multiple organ damage through direct or indirect mechanisms, in which the liver is one of the most frequently affected organs. It has been reported that 15\u201365% of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients experience liver dysfunction, mainly manifested as mild to moderate elevation of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Severe patients may progress to liver failure, develop hepatic encephalopathy, or have poor coagulation function. The mechanisms underlying this type of liver injury are complex. Pathways\u2014including direct viral infection (via ACE2 receptors), immune-mediated responses (e.g., cytokine storm), ischemic\/hypoxic liver damage, thrombosis, oxidative stress, neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis), and the gut\u2013liver axis\u2014remain largely speculative and lack robust clinical causal evidence. In contrast, drug-induced liver injury (DILI) has been established as a well-defined causative factor using the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM). Treatment should simultaneously consider antiviral therapy and liver protection therapy. This article systematically reviewed the mechanism, clinical diagnosis, treatment, and management strategies of COVID-19-related liver injury and discussed the limitations of current research and the future directions, hoping to provide help for the diagnosis and treatment of such patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14207228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T11:57:42Z","timestamp":1760529462000},"page":"7228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["COVID-19 Infection, Drugs, and Liver Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-8942-8377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dianya","family":"Qiu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weihua","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaqin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongxiao","family":"Hao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Linmei","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuojie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zixuan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"},{"name":"HBV Infection, Clinical Cure and Immunology Joint Laboratory for Clinical Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Peking University Ditan Teaching Hospital, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3233-5473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minghui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China"},{"name":"HBV Infection, Clinical Cure and Immunology Joint Laboratory for Clinical Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Department of Hepatology Division 2, Peking University Ditan Teaching Hospital, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25685","article-title":"Coronavirus Infections and Immune Responses","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehman, S.U., Shafique, L., Ihsan, A., and Liu, Q. (2020). Evolutionary Trajectory for the Emergence of Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9030240"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30251-8","article-title":"Genomic Characterisation and Epidemiology of 2019 Novel Coronavirus: Implications for Virus Origins and Receptor Binding","volume":"395","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1208\/s12248-020-00532-2","article-title":"Recent Developments on Therapeutic and Diagnostic Approaches for COVID-19","volume":"23","author":"Majumder","year":"2021","journal-title":"AAPS J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mittal, A., Manjunath, K., Ranjan, R.K., Kaushik, S., Kumar, S., and Verma, V. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic: Insights into Structure, Function, and hACE2 Receptor Recognition by SARS-CoV-2. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202005.0260.v2"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chilamakuri, R., and Agarwal, S. (2021). COVID-19: Characteristics and Therapeutics. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10020206"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m606","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m606","article-title":"Clinical Findings in a Group of Patients Infected with the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) Outside of Wuhan, China: Retrospective Case Series","volume":"368","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1287","article-title":"Pathogenesis, Clinical Manifestations and Complications of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"15","author":"Khalili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kukla, M., Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K., Kotfis, K., Maciejewska, D., \u0141oniewski, I., Lara, L.F., Pazgan-Simon, M., Stachowska, E., Kaczmarczyk, M., and Koulaouzidis, A. (2020). COVID-19, MERS and SARS with Concomitant Liver Injury-Systematic Review of the Existing Literature. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9051420"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31281","article-title":"Clinical Best Practice Advice for Hepatology and Liver Transplant Providers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: AASLD Expert Panel Consensus Statement","volume":"72","author":"Fix","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100864","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v31.i6.100864","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 and Hepatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Regulation, Association, and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"31","author":"Luo","year":"2025","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2024.123022","article-title":"COVID-19-Related Liver Injury: Mechanisms, Diagnosis, Management; Its Impact on Pre-Existing Conditions, Cancer and Liver Transplant: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"356","author":"Vinutha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v16.i1.1","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms Underlying SARS-CoV-2 Hepatotropism and Liver Damage","volume":"16","author":"Quarleri","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danan, G., and Teschke, R. (2016). RUCAM in Drug and Herb Induced Liver Injury: The Update. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17010014"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-4356(93)90101-6","article-title":"Causality Assessment of Adverse Reactions to Drugs\u2014I. A Novel Method Based on the Conclusions of International Consensus Meetings: Application to Drug-Induced Liver Injuries","volume":"46","author":"Danan","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teschke, R., M\u00e9ndez-S\u00e1nchez, N., and Eickhoff, A. (2022). Liver Injury in COVID-19 Patients with Drugs as Causatives: A Systematic Review of 996 DILI Cases Published 2020\/2021 Based on RUCAM as Causality Assessment Method. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094828"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2286","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i19.2286","article-title":"Liver Diseases in COVID-19: Etiology, Treatment and Prognosis","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2020.10.004","article-title":"Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission and Pathogenesis","volume":"41","author":"Harrison","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3303","DOI":"10.1002\/jgm.3303","article-title":"COVID-19: Virology, Biology and Novel Laboratory Diagnosis","volume":"23","author":"Mohamadian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gene Med."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"162","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Variant Biology: Immune Escape, Transmission and Fitness","volume":"21","author":"Carabelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1007\/s11684-021-0906-x","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Variants, Immune Escape, and Countermeasures","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2105000","article-title":"Vaccine Breakthrough Infections with SARS-CoV-2 Variants","volume":"384","author":"Hacisuleyman","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A Pneumonia Outbreak Associated with a New Coronavirus of Probable Bat Origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.02.018","article-title":"Characteristics of COVID-19 Infection in Beijing","volume":"80","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25766","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019: What We Know?","volume":"92","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03240-7","article-title":"Incidence of ARDS and Outcomes in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Global Literature Survey","volume":"24","author":"Tzotzos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.0994","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China","volume":"180","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4326","article-title":"Characteristics and Outcomes of 21 Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19 in Washington State","volume":"323","author":"Arentz","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.5114\/ait.2022.121091","article-title":"Respiratory Mechanics in Late COVID-19 ARDS-a Restrictive Pattern Is Strongly Associated with Death. A Cohort Study","volume":"54","author":"Villar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anaesthesiol. Intensive Ther."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elrobaa, I.H., and New, K.J. (2021). COVID-19: Pulmonary and Extra Pulmonary Manifestations. Front. Public Health, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.711616"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-020-00662-x","article-title":"Expression of the SARS-CoV-2 Cell Receptor Gene ACE2 in a Wide Variety of Human Tissues","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"142","article-title":"Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of COVID-19: Evolving Recognition and Need for Increased Understanding in Vulnerable Populations","volume":"113","author":"Garland","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Natl. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.05.010","article-title":"WCM-GI research group\u2217 Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease in a Large Cohort of Infected Patients From New York: Clinical Implications","volume":"159","author":"Hajifathalian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1","DOI":"10.1097\/SGA.0000000000000584","article-title":"Clinical Manifestations of Gastrointestinal Symptoms in COVID-19 Patients: An Integrative Review","volume":"44","author":"Abbasinia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-320926","article-title":"Epidemiological, Clinical and Virological Characteristics of 74 Cases of Coronavirus-Infected Disease 2019 (COVID-19) with Gastrointestinal Symptoms","volume":"69","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa709","article-title":"Alterations of the Gut Microbiota in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 or H1N1 Influenza","volume":"71","author":"Gu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Aleem, A., and Shah, H. (2025). Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of Coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"568","article-title":"Special Considerations in the Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis in COVID-19 Hotspots: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Madhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1097\/JCMA.0000000000000319","article-title":"Gastrointestinal and Liver Manifestations in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"83","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Chin. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Zhou, X., Qiu, Y., Song, Y., Feng, F., Feng, J., Song, Q., Jia, Q., and Wang, J. (2020). Clinical Characteristics of 82 Cases of Death from COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0235458"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14435","article-title":"Liver Injury during Highly Pathogenic Human Coronavirus Infections","volume":"40","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2554","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v8.i12.2554","article-title":"Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 Patients in Hengyang, Hunan Province, China","volume":"8","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.6775","article-title":"Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes Among 5700 Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City Area","volume":"323","author":"Richardson","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31404","article-title":"Acute Liver Injury in COVID-19: Prevalence and Association with Clinical Outcomes in a Large US Cohort","volume":"72","author":"Phipps","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.14744\/hf.2023.2023.0025","article-title":"Insight into COVID-19 Associated Liver Injury: Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Clinical Implications","volume":"5","author":"Nasir","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hepatol. Forum"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2002032","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China","volume":"382","author":"Guan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2021). Anonymous Long COVID or Post COVID-19 Syndrome. Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord., 55, 103268.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103268"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i2.241","article-title":"Liver Injury in COVID-19: Clinical Features, Potential Mechanisms, Risk Factors and Clinical Treatments","volume":"29","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa408","article-title":"Characteristics and Clinical Significance of Myocardial Injury in Patients with Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"41","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"e66554","article-title":"The Long-Term Cardiovascular Impact of COVID-19: Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management","volume":"16","author":"Mukkawar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1","article-title":"Coronary Implications of COVID-19","volume":"34","author":"Triantafyllis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"354","article-title":"Characterization of Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Patients with Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"13","author":"Rubin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.03.005","article-title":"Kidney Disease Is Associated with In-Hospital Death of Patients with COVID-19","volume":"97","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabrizi, F., Nardelli, L., Regalia, A., Zanoni, F., and Castellano, G. (2024). Are Kidneys Affected by SARS-CoV-2 Infection? An Updated Review on COVID-19-Associated AKI. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13040325"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2021.05.010","article-title":"COVID-19 Infection and the Kidneys: Learning the Lesson","volume":"14","author":"Soliman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernal, C., How-Volkman, C., Spencer, M., El-Shamy, A., and Mohieldin, A.M. (2024). The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in SARS-CoV-2-Induced Acute Kidney Injury: An Overview. Life, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/life14020163"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.1127","article-title":"Neurologic Manifestations of Hospitalized Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China","volume":"77","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2112131","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.12131","article-title":"Global Incidence of Neurological Manifestations Among Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19-A Report for the GCS-NeuroCOVID Consortium and the ENERGY Consortium","volume":"4","author":"Chou","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2021.07.005","article-title":"COVID-19 Associated Nervous System Manifestations","volume":"91","author":"Khatoon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sleep. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-05965-1","article-title":"Olfactory and Gustatory Dysfunctions as a Clinical Presentation of Mild-to-Moderate Forms of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): A Multicenter European Study","volume":"277","author":"Lechien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102535","article-title":"How Does the COVID-19 Cause Seizure and Epilepsy in Patients? The Potential Mechanisms","volume":"46","author":"Nikbakht","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vashisht, A., Vashisht, V., Singh, H., Ahluwalia, P., Mondal, A.K., Williams, C., Farmaha, J., Woodall, J., and Kolhe, R. (2024). Neurological Complications of COVID-19: Unraveling the Pathophysiological Underpinnings and Therapeutic Implications. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16081183"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14057","article-title":"COVID-19 Infection May Cause Ketosis and Ketoacidosis","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pp, A., Ms, B., Aa, S., La, K., and Pv, A. (2024). Immunity and Coagulation in COVID-19. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252011267"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Russu, E., Arb\u0103na\u015fi, E.-M., and \u0218chiopu, A. (2024). Special Issue \u201cCOVID-19 Coagulopathy: Advances on Pathophysiology and Therapies\u201d. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25063548"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-024-03705-7","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 on Testicular Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"85","author":"Cannarella","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13753","DOI":"10.1111\/ijcp.13753","article-title":"Is There Any Association of COVID-19 with Testicular Pain and Epididymo-Orchitis?","volume":"75","author":"Ediz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"e59177","article-title":"Ophthalmic Manifestations of COVID-19: A Retrospective Study on Prevalence, Characteristics, and Clinical Implications","volume":"16","author":"Patel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2024.102608","article-title":"Ocular Manifestations of COVID-19: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence","volume":"38","author":"SeyedAlinaghi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prev. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2038","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14500","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Virus and Liver Expression of Host Receptors: Putative Mechanisms of Liver Involvement in COVID-19","volume":"40","author":"Pirola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03218-5","article-title":"Unspecific Post-Mortem Findings despite Multiorgan Viral Spread in COVID-19 Patients","volume":"24","author":"Remmelink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2021.01.044","article-title":"Hepatic Vasculopathy and Regenerative Responses of the Liver in Fatal Cases of COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Kaltschmidt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.1038\/s41379-020-00649-x","article-title":"Hepatic Pathology in Patients Dying of COVID-19: A Series of 40 Cases Including Clinical, Histologic, and Virologic Data","volume":"33","author":"Lagana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1007\/s13238-020-00718-6","article-title":"Recapitulation of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Cholangiocyte Damage with Human Liver Ductal Organoids","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Protein Cell"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical Features of Patients Infected with 2019 Novel Coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humpath.2022.07.006","article-title":"COVID-19: Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary Manifestations","volume":"132","author":"Shih","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa248","article-title":"Dysregulation of Immune Response in Patients with Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"71","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i16.2397","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Induced Liver Injury: Incidence, Risk Factors, Impact on COVID-19 Severity and Prognosis in Different Population Groups","volume":"29","author":"Liatsos","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"2036","article-title":"The Mechanisms and Strategies to Protect from Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022003","DOI":"10.4084\/MJHID.2022.003","article-title":"Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 Invasion into the Liver and Hepatic Injury in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Hematol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peiris, S., Mesa, H., Aysola, A., Manivel, J., Toledo, J., Borges-Sa, M., Aldighieri, S., and Reveiz, L. (2021). Pathological Findings in Organs and Tissues of Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250708"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02332-y","article-title":"Liver Injury in COVID-19: An Insight into Pathobiology and Roles of Risk Factors","volume":"21","author":"Tazarghi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Zhou, Z., and Min, W. (2018). Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and Innate Immunity. Front. Physiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01487"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"1178","article-title":"NETosis: Molecular Mechanisms, Role in Physiology and Pathology","volume":"85","author":"Vorobjeva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Chen, X., and Liu, X. (2022). NETosis and Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in COVID-19: Immunothrombosis and Beyond. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.838011"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2021.04.050","article-title":"Liver Injury in COVID-19 and IL-6 Trans-Signaling-Induced Endotheliopathy","volume":"75","author":"McConnell","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14768","article-title":"Abnormal Coagulation Parameters Are Associated with Poor Prognosis in Patients with Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1002\/ajh.25829","article-title":"Hematological Findings and Complications of COVID-19","volume":"95","author":"Terpos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.blre.2020.100761","article-title":"Coagulation and Anticoagulation in COVID-19","volume":"47","author":"Hadid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood Rev."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14601","article-title":"Liver Histopathology in Severe COVID 19 Respiratory Failure Is Suggestive of Vascular Alterations","volume":"40","author":"Sonzogni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prp.2021.153451","article-title":"Liver Histopathology in COVID-19 Patients: A Mono-Institutional Series of Liver Biopsies and Autopsy Specimens","volume":"221","author":"Fassan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stasi, C. (2025). Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Sequelae in Liver Diseases. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/life15030403"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"e80231","article-title":"COVID-19 and Its Effects on the Hepatobiliary System: A Literature Review","volume":"17","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.126707","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Exaggerates Triclosan-Induced Liver Injury via Gut-Liver Axis","volume":"421","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15916","article-title":"Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis: Liver Manifestations and Outcomes in COVID-19","volume":"52","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2020.04.006","article-title":"COVID-19: Abnormal Liver Function Tests","volume":"73","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2020.04.002","article-title":"Clinical Features of COVID-19-Related Liver Functional Abnormality","volume":"18","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI128274","article-title":"Pregnane X Receptor Activation Potentiates Ritonavir Hepatotoxicity","volume":"129","author":"Shehu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa883","article-title":"Drug-Induced Liver Injury in a Patient with Coronavirus Disease 2019: Potential Interaction of Remdesivir with P-Glycoprotein Inhibitors","volume":"72","author":"Leegwater","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"276","article-title":"Favipiravir-Induced Liver Injury in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"9","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14516","article-title":"First Case of Drug-Induced Liver Injury Associated with the Use of Tocilizumab in a Patient with COVID-19","volume":"40","author":"Muhovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-1024398","article-title":"Fatal liver failure after corticosteroid treatment of a hepatitis B virus carrier","volume":"124","author":"Hammond","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01397","DOI":"10.14309\/crj.0000000000001397","article-title":"Hepatitis B Reactivation and Liver Failure Because of COVID-19 Infection","volume":"11","author":"Mushtaq","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACG Case Rep. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humpath.2020.11.015","article-title":"Pathological Findings in the Postmortem Liver of Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"109","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2020.09.015","article-title":"Findings of Hepatic Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 Infection","volume":"11","author":"Fiel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2026131","article-title":"Cytokine Storm","volume":"383","author":"Fajgenbaum","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zanza, C., Romenskaya, T., Manetti, A.C., Franceschi, F., La Russa, R., Bertozzi, G., Maiese, A., Savioli, G., Volonnino, G., and Longhitano, Y. (2022). Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Therapy. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58020144"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40071","article-title":"Review: Cytokine Storm Syndrome: Looking Toward the Precision Medicine Era","volume":"69","author":"Behrens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.14218\/JCTH.2020.00019","article-title":"Characteristics and Mechanism of Liver Injury in 2019 Coronavirus Disease","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"282","article-title":"Increased Inflammatory Markers Correlate with Liver Damage and Predict Severe COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Koushki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Bed Bench"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akkiz, H. (2023). Unraveling the Molecular and Cellular Pathogenesis of COVID-19-Associated Liver Injury. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15061287"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2006.050875","article-title":"Kupffer Cell-Dependent Hepatitis Occurs during Influenza Infection","volume":"168","author":"Polakos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2006.051296","article-title":"Systemic Viral Infections and Collateral Damage in the Liver","volume":"168","author":"Adams","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hoc.2015.06.010","article-title":"Macrophage Activation Syndrome","volume":"29","author":"Ravelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hematol. Oncol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1007\/s13312-021-2399-8","article-title":"Macrophage Activation Syndrome in Children: Diagnosis and Management","volume":"58","author":"Bagri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2021.10336","article-title":"Macrophage Activation Syndrome: A Diagnostic Challenge (Review)","volume":"22","author":"Bojan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan, A., Wong, F., Couch, L.S., and Wang, B.X. (2022). Cardiac Complications of COVID-19 in Low-Risk Patients. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061322"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.50674","article-title":"COVID-19 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): Clinical Features and Differences from Typical Pre-COVID-19 ARDS","volume":"213","author":"Gibson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H., Li, H., Chen, S., Zhou, X., Dai, X., Wu, J., Zhang, J., Shao, L., Yan, R., and Wang, M. (2020). Prevalence and Characteristics of Hypoxic Hepatitis in COVID-19 Patients in the Intensive Care Unit: A First Retrospective Study. Front. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.607206"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050312120957925","DOI":"10.1177\/2050312120957925","article-title":"Neurological Manifestations in COVID-19: A Narrative Review","volume":"8","author":"Rahman","year":"2020","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3182070c3a","article-title":"Isoflurane Activates Intestinal Sphingosine Kinase to Protect against Renal Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Liver and Intestine Injury","volume":"114","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110102","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Infection Pathogenesis Is Related to Oxidative Stress as a Response to Aggression","volume":"143","author":"Cecchini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, T. (2009). The Nuclear Factor NF-kappaB Pathway in Inflammation. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol., 1.","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a001651"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-013-0633-0","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1 Signalling and Inflammation: Interactions between Old Acquaintances","volume":"62","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vorobjeva, N., Galkin, I., Pletjushkina, O., Golyshev, S., Zinovkin, R., Prikhodko, A., Pinegin, V., Kondratenko, I., Pinegin, B., and Chernyak, B. (2020). Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Is Involved in Oxidative Burst and NETosis of Human Neutrophils. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis., 1866.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.165664"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-020520-111016","article-title":"Cellular Mechanisms of NETosis","volume":"36","author":"Thiam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S B, M.J., Chacko, B., Selvarajan, S., Peter, J.V., Geevar, T., Dave, R.G., Georgy, J.T., Zachariah, A., George, T., and Sathyendra, S. (2024). Biomarkers of Coagulation, Endothelial, Platelet Function, and Fibrinolysis in Patients with COVID-19: A Prospective Study. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51908-9"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/hepr.13577","article-title":"Association of Coagulopathy with Liver Dysfunction in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"51","author":"Tsutsumi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hepatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1111\/hepr.13696","article-title":"Pathological Characteristics of Liver Sinusoidal Thrombosis in COVID-19 Patients: A Series of 43 Cases","volume":"51","author":"Kondo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hepatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0037-1613747","article-title":"High Plasma Concentration of Factor VIIIc Is a Major Risk Factor for Venous Thromboembolism","volume":"83","author":"Kraaijenhagen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)90166-3","article-title":"Role of Clotting Factor VIII in Effect of von Willebrand Factor on Occurrence of Deep-Vein Thrombosis","volume":"345","author":"Koster","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antoni, G., Oudot-Mellakh, T., Dimitromanolakis, A., Germain, M., Cohen, W., Wells, P., Lathrop, M., Gagnon, F., Morange, P.-E., and Tregouet, D.-A. (2011). Combined Analysis of Three Genome-Wide Association Studies on vWF and FVIII Plasma Levels. BMC Med. Genet., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2350-12-102"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2866","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v30.i22.2866","article-title":"Histopathological Impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the Liver: Cellular Damage and Long-Term Complications","volume":"30","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Focosi, D., Franchini, M., Maggi, F., and Shoham, S. (2024). COVID-19 Therapeutics. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 37.","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00119-23"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Jiao, B., Qu, L., Yang, D., and Liu, R. (2023). The Development of COVID-19 Treatment. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1125246"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.15903","article-title":"Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) Poisoning: The Early Years","volume":"90","author":"Prescott","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teschke, R., and Danan, G. (2020). Worldwide Use of RUCAM for Causality Assessment in 81,856 Idiosyncratic DILI and 14,029 HILI Cases Published 1993-Mid 2020: A Comprehensive Analysis. Medicines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines7100062"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado, A., Stewart, S., Urroz, M., Rodriguez, A., Borobia, A.M., Akatbach-Bousaid, I., Gonzalez-Munoz, M., and Ramirez, E. (2021). Characterisation of Drug-Induced Liver Injury in Patients with COVID-19 Detected by a Proactive Pharmacovigilance Program from Laboratory Signals. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10194432"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s40264-020-00954-z","article-title":"Drug-Induced Liver Injury and COVID-19 Infection: The Rules Remain the Same","volume":"43","author":"Olry","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0910283","article-title":"Hypoxia and Inflammation","volume":"364","author":"Eltzschig","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aohep.2020.09.011","article-title":"Clinical Features and Risk Factors of COVID-19-Associated Liver Injury and Function: A Retrospective Analysis of 830 Cases","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jceh.2021.02.006","article-title":"Severe Jaundice in a COVID-19 Patient-Virus or Drug?","volume":"11","author":"Jothimani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiac.2020.12.021","article-title":"Suspected Cholestatic Liver Injury Induced by Favipiravir in a Patient with COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i2.257","article-title":"COVID-19 and Liver Injury: An Ongoing Challenge","volume":"29","author":"Papagiouvanni","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_145","first-page":"e38932","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-Induced Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"15","author":"Martini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v15.i3.364","article-title":"May 2022 Acute Hepatitis Outbreak, Is There a Role for COVID-19 and Other Viruses?","volume":"15","author":"Elbeltagi","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2024.49.2.44247","article-title":"Acute Severe Hepatitis and COVID-19: Case Report","volume":"49","author":"Hmimass","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pan Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22818","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000022818","article-title":"COVID-19 Presenting as Fulminant Hepatic Failure: A Case Report","volume":"99","author":"Melquist","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1002\/jgh3.12645","article-title":"Jaundice in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Bender","year":"2021","journal-title":"JGH Open"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.06.043","article-title":"Hepatic Manifestations and Complications of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"81","author":"Kunutsor","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-020-10071-9","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) and the Liver: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Mishra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8955","DOI":"10.1002\/ccr3.8955","article-title":"COVID-19 Presenting as Severe Acute Hepatitis in a Pediatric Patient with Thalassemia Minor: A Case Report","volume":"12","author":"Jamalvi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00373-7","article-title":"COVID-19-Associated Gastrointestinal and Liver Injury: Clinical Features and Potential Mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000003404","article-title":"Severe Hepatitis in Pediatric Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"74","author":"Antala","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31487","article-title":"Abnormal Liver Tests in COVID-19: A Retrospective Observational Cohort Study of 1,827 Patients in a Major U.S. Hospital Network","volume":"72","author":"Hundt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30211-7","article-title":"Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of 99 Cases of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A Descriptive Study","volume":"395","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31301","article-title":"Longitudinal Association Between Markers of Liver Injury and Mortality in COVID-19 in China","volume":"72","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30126-6","article-title":"Manifestations and Prognosis of Gastrointestinal and Liver Involvement in Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000001817","article-title":"COVID-19 and Liver Injury: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"33","author":"Wijarnpreecha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_160","first-page":"28","article-title":"Pattern of Liver Injury in Adult Patients with COVID-19: A Retrospective Analysis of 105 Patients","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5735","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v28.i39.5735","article-title":"Effects of COVID-19 on the Liver: The Experience of a Single Center","volume":"28","author":"Liakina","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, C., Wang, W., Zhang, Q., and Jin, Z. (2025). Autoimmune Hepatitis under the COVID-19 Veil: An Analysis of the Nature of Potential Associations. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1510770"},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"551","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Liver Injury: A Retrospective Analysis of Hospitalized Patients in New York City","volume":"9","author":"Bender","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30057-1","article-title":"Liver Injury in COVID-19: Management and Challenges","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26036","article-title":"Hepatic Complications of COVID-19 and Its Treatment","volume":"92","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"Azizaddini, S., and Mani, N. (2025). Liver Imaging. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morana, G., Bele\u00f9, A., Geraci, L., Tomaiuolo, L., and Venturini, S. (2024). Imaging of the Liver and Pancreas: The Added Value of MRI. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14070693"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13118","DOI":"10.1002\/jgh3.13118","article-title":"Liver Dysfunction in Adults with COVID-19 Infection: A Longitudinal Study with Transient Elastography Evaluation","volume":"8","author":"Rajaram","year":"2024","journal-title":"JGH Open"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spogis, J., Hagen, F., Thaiss, W.M., Hoffmann, T., Malek, N., Nikolaou, K., Berg, C.P., Singer, S., B\u00f6sm\u00fcller, H., and Kreth, F. (2021). Sonographic Findings in Coronavirus Disease-19 Associated Liver Damage. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244781"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.5339\/qmj.2024.46","article-title":"Liver Ultrasound Evaluation of Acutely Increased Liver Function Tests of COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients","volume":"2024","author":"Almughalles","year":"2024","journal-title":"Qatar Med. J."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-020-10087-1","article-title":"Liver Injury in Patients with COVID-19: Clinical Profiles, CT Findings, the Correlation of the Severity with Liver Injury","volume":"14","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i5.834","article-title":"Liver Involvement in Patients with COVID-19 Infection: A Comprehensive Overview of Diagnostic Imaging Features","volume":"29","author":"Ippolito","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000621","article-title":"The Utility of Liver Biopsy in 2020","volume":"36","author":"Khalifa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2021). European Association for the Study of the Liver EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines on Non-Invasive Tests for Evaluation of Liver Disease Severity and Prognosis-2021 Update. J. Hepatol., 75, 659\u2013689.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2021.05.025"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, Y.-S., Lam, C.-Y., Tan, P.-H., Tsang, H.-F., and Wong, S.-C.C. (2024). Comprehensive Review of COVID-19: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Advancement in Diagnostic and Detection Techniques, and Post-Pandemic Treatment Strategies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25158155"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Zhao, L., and Xie, K. (2025). Development and Validation of a Nomogram to Assess the Occurrence of Liver Dysfunction in Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia in the ICU. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-10684-1"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashemian, S.M.R., Sheida, A., Taghizadieh, M., Memar, M.Y., Hamblin, M.R., Bannazadeh Baghi, H., Sadri Nahand, J., Asemi, Z., and Mirzaei, H. (2023). Paxlovid (Nirmatrelvir\/Ritonavir): A New Approach to COVID-19 Therapy?. Biomed. Pharmacother., 162.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114367"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2118542","article-title":"Oral Nirmatrelvir for High-Risk, Nonhospitalized Adults with Covid-19","volume":"386","author":"Hammond","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28441","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28441","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Nirmatrelvir\/Ritonavir (Paxlovid) for COVID-19: A Rapid Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"95","author":"Amani","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zong, K., Xu, L., Luo, C., Luo, C., Liu, B., Chen, J., Wu, H., Liu, Z., Zhuang, R., and Guo, S. (2024). Paxlovid Reduces the 28-Day Mortality of Patients with COVID-19: A Retrospective Cohort Study. BMC Infect. Dis., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-024-09482-y"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3002.230835","article-title":"Public Health Impact of Paxlovid as Treatment for COVID-19, United States","volume":"30","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0","article-title":"Remdesivir and Chloroquine Effectively Inhibit the Recently Emerged Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Vitro","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2116846","article-title":"Early Remdesivir to Prevent Progression to Severe COVID-19 in Outpatients","volume":"386","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007764","article-title":"Remdesivir for the Treatment of Covid-19-Final Report","volume":"383","author":"Beigel","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4450","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.14831","article-title":"LUMC-Covid-19 research group Liver and Kidney Function in Patients with COVID-19 Treated with Remdesivir","volume":"87","author":"Guchelaar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2327","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007016","article-title":"Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Grein","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-023-05881-9","article-title":"Molnupiravir: An Antiviral Drug against COVID-19","volume":"168","author":"Dave","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e134","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2024.39.e134","article-title":"Review of COVID-19 Therapeutics by Mechanism: From Discovery to Approval","volume":"39","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2116044","article-title":"Molnupiravir for Oral Treatment of COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized Patients","volume":"386","author":"Musungaie","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2024.03.002","article-title":"Molnupiravir for the Treatment of COVID-19 Outpatients: An Updated Meta-Analysis","volume":"57","author":"Cheema","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2404450","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202404450","article-title":"Effectiveness and Safety of Oral Azvudine for Elderly Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Multicenter, Retrospective, Real-World Study","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-024-02220-9","article-title":"Azvudine Efficacy in Reducing Mortality in COVID-19 Patients","volume":"29","author":"Zhong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Luo, Q., Tao, Y., Sun, X., and Liu, C. (2021). Pharmacotherapies for Drug-Induced Liver Injury: A Current Literature Review. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.806249"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.34172\/mejdd.2021.236","article-title":"Gastrointestinal and Liver Manifestations in COVID-19 Population","volume":"13","author":"Saleem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Middle East. J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.037","article-title":"The Pathogenesis and Treatment of the `Cytokine Storm\u2019 in COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1142\/S0192415X23500209","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Glycyrrhizic Acid in Treatment of Autoimmune Hepatitis","volume":"51","author":"Bi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4753","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i32.4753","article-title":"Etiology and Management of Liver Injury in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-021-01593-1","article-title":"Liver Injury in COVID-19: Clinical Features and Treatment Management","volume":"18","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v15.i4.441","article-title":"COVID-19 and Liver Injury: Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, Outcome and Management in Special Populations","volume":"15","author":"Roshanshad","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2020.1794812","article-title":"Liver Injury in Severe COVID-19 Infection: Current Insights and Challenges","volume":"14","author":"Ali","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aohep.2021.100653","article-title":"Management of COVID-19 Patients with Chronic Liver Diseases and Liver Transplants","volume":"27","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Hepatol."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/20\/7228\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T04:48:56Z","timestamp":1760590136000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/14\/20\/7228"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"references-count":201,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm14207228"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14207228","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]}}}