{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T05:49:51Z","timestamp":1790660991875,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,30]],"date-time":"2025-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764460800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Interstitial lung disease (ILD) involves numerous chronic pulmonary conditions that damage the lung parenchyma and alveolar interstitium. ILD has overlapping clinical and radiological features with other commonly seen cardiac and respiratory conditions. If not identified and treated in a timely manner, it may lead to irreversible fibrosis and a poor prognosis in the patient. The current diagnostic methods are either invasive or reliant on imaging or specialist interpretation, which can lead to diagnostic delay, increased radiation exposure, and healthcare costs. Lung crackles, often under-recognized as a non-specific feature of ILD, may serve as an important diagnostic clue in identifying not only the early stages of ILD but also its subtypes. This review explores the potential of analyzing the lung sounds in ILD through AI-based auscultation. Objective: To provide a comprehensive analysis of the pathophysiological stages of lung injury in ILD, the specific acoustic features, and the location associated with each ILD subtype and to evaluate the current state-of-the-art non-AI and AI methodologies that are used to diagnose ILD. This review aims to analyze the limitations associated with the current modalities and to envision AI-integrated auscultation as a powerful, cost-effective, non-invasive, radiation-free screening tool for early detection of ILD and its subtypes. Content Overview: The review begins with a detailed analysis of the lung sound pathophysiology, exploring the two-stage mechanism of alveolar epithelial injury and fibrosis formation. Existing hypotheses explaining the mechanism behind crackle production and the role of structural anatomy and surface tension in the generation of pathological lung sounds are examined. A tabulated summary of common ILD subtypes is provided, including their inciting events, pathogenesis, anatomical auscultation locations, and prognostic implications. Current diagnostic modalities for ILD, both non-AI and AI-based, are summarized along with their limitations, emphasizing the need for improved diagnostic tools. Discussion: Existing studies suggest that AI-based auscultation can match or exceed the current modalities in its sensitivity and specificity for detecting ILD-related crackles. Clinicians can identify the specific sound pattern and then correlate it with the ILD subtype and understand the prognosis in real time, thereby providing timely intervention to the patient. Additionally, AI-based auscultation can be used in resource-limited settings and can potentially reduce dependence on pulmonology expertise and radiation-based imaging for monitoring the condition. Conclusions: This literature review highlights the clinical potential of AI-based auscultation for early and accurate diagnoses of ILD. Understanding the associated pathological sounds, biomarkers, and genetic mutations linked to different subtypes opens avenues for future development of non-invasive diagnostic panels for ILD in clinical practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14238500","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T16:20:29Z","timestamp":1765210829000},"page":"8500","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Artificial Intelligence Enabled Lung Sound Auscultation in the Early Diagnosis and Subtyping of Interstitial Lung Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Avneet","family":"Kaur","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, MedStar Union Memorial Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21218, 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USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sancia Mary","family":"Jerold Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital Engineering & Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (DEAL), Department of Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Richard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital Engineering & Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (DEAL), Department of Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shiva Sankari","family":"Karrupiah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital Engineering & Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (DEAL), Department of Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, 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