{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T23:05:38Z","timestamp":1792019138026,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent advances in neuromodulation are opening new pathways for treating chronic pain, with spinal cord stimulation (SCS) poised for substantial transformation in the coming years. Evolving technologies and a deeper understanding of pain mechanisms are driving a move away from traditional, standardized stimulation models toward more precise and personalized interventions. This shift reflects not only technical progress but also a growing emphasis on tailoring treatment to individual patient profiles. Advances in neuromodulation have introduced new stimulation patterns such as high-frequency, burst and dorsal root ganglion stimulation, which developed to address the limitations of conventional tonic SCS, especially declining long-term efficacy and the need for paresthesia. Early studies show promising results for these newer modalities, but findings are inconsistent and long-term data remain limited. In this article, we explore the current landscape of SCS innovation, highlight emerging clinical approaches and discuss the conceptual and technological trends that are likely to redefine the role of neuromodulation in chronic pain management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14238615","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T16:20:29Z","timestamp":1765210829000},"page":"8615","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Spinal Cord Stimulation: Mechanisms of Action, Indications, Types, Complications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3062-8739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chrysoula","family":"Vlachou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4810-3829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Despoina","family":"Sarridou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, AHEPA University Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Chronic Pain Unit, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasilios","family":"Grosomanidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, AHEPA University Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Chronic Pain Unit, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilias","family":"Voulgaris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helena","family":"Argiriadou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, AHEPA University Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Chronic Pain Unit, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aikaterini","family":"Amaniti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA Hospital, Stilponos Kyriakidi St., 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, AHEPA University Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Chronic Pain Unit, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzzi, G., Torre, A.D., La Torre, D., Volpentesta, G., Stroscio, C.A., Lavano, A., and Longhini, F. 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