{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T23:45:25Z","timestamp":1790034325867,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Preterm birth has evolved from being an acute neonatal challenge to a lifelong health determinant, as advances in neonatal care have markedly improved the survival of very and extremely preterm infants. This narrative review synthesizes epidemiological and mechanistic evidence linking preterm birth with heightened cardiometabolic risk across the life course. In adulthood, individuals born preterm demonstrate increased rates of heart failure, ischemic heart disease, stroke, atrial fibrillation, and diabetes. Beneath these overt clinical outcomes lies a distinct phenotype characterized by increased adiposity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and atypical growth trajectories, with rapid catch-up growth amplifying long-term risk. Mechanistic pathways highlight adipose tissue maldevelopment, predisposing to metabolic syndrome, alongside cardiac maldevelopment with reduced ventricular size, impaired diastolic function, and diminished exercise capacity. Furthermore, vascular growth arrest, impaired elastin synthesis, and nephron deficiency contribute to sustained elevations in blood pressure, establishing an early substrate for hypertension and cardiovascular remodeling. These alterations reflect the developmental origins of health and disease, whereby early-life disruption of growth and maturation exerts lasting effects on organ structure and function. Collectively, the evidence identifies adults born preterm as a growing yet under-recognized patient population with a unique clinical and biochemical profile and accelerated vulnerability to non-communicable diseases. Greater awareness among pediatric and adult physicians, structured transition of care, and targeted prevention strategies are urgently needed to mitigate early cardiometabolic morbidity and optimize long-term health outcomes in this high-risk group.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15010256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T14:33:25Z","timestamp":1767191605000},"page":"256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Cardio-Metabolic Risk in Adults Born Preterm: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6056-5757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamim","family":"Ficial","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, University and Hospital Trust of Verona, P. le A. Stefani 1, 37126 Verona, Italy"},{"name":"Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Amalia Children\u2019s Hospital, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 10, 804, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonardo","family":"Gottin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intensive Care Unit, Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Pediatrics, and Gynecology, University and Hospital Trust of Verona, P. le A. Stefani 1, 37126 Verona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3563-4404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Maffeis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Pediatric Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Pediatrics, and Gynecology, University of Verona, 37126 Verona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Group CoPoLBI (2023). New World Health Organization recommendations for care of preterm or low birth weight infants: Health policy. EClinicalMedicine, 63, 102155.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2023.102155"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)00522-6","article-title":"Small babies, big risks: Global estimates of prevalence and mortality for vulnerable newborns to accelerate change and improve counting","volume":"401","author":"Lawn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102840","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of preterm birth, 1990-2021: A systematic analysis from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"76","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(21)00311-4","article-title":"Global, regional, and national causes of under-5 mortality in 2000-19: An updated systematic analysis with implications for the Sustainable Development Goals","volume":"6","author":"Perin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Child Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2022.1622","article-title":"Global, Regional, and National Incidence and Mortality of Neonatal Preterm Birth, 1990\u20132019","volume":"176","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2023.3487","article-title":"National Trends in Preterm Infant Mortality in the United States by Race and Socioeconomic Status, 1995\u20132020","volume":"177","author":"Venkatesan","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2032779","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.32779","article-title":"Mortality Among Young Adults Born Preterm and Early Term in 4 Nordic Nations","volume":"4","author":"Risnes","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e015900","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.015900","article-title":"Life Course Changes in Cardiometabolic Risk Factors Associated With Preterm Delivery: The 30-Year CARDIA Study","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2020.105154","article-title":"Premature birth, low birth weight, small for gestational age and chronic non-communicable diseases in adult life: A systematic review with meta-analysis","volume":"149","author":"Bueno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15786","article-title":"Cardiovascular Health Profile at Age 25 Years in Adults Born Extremely Preterm or Extremely Low Birthweight","volume":"76","author":"Cheong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)02750-2","article-title":"Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: A pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"100188","article-title":"A new patient population for adult clinicians: Preterm born adults","volume":"9","author":"Green","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health Am."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.13880","article-title":"Adults born preterm: A review of general health and system-specific outcomes","volume":"106","author":"Raju","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.03.572","article-title":"Preterm Birth and Risk of Heart Failure Up to Early Adulthood","volume":"69","author":"Carr","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12219","article-title":"Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke in Adults Born Preterm\u2014The Helsinki Birth Cohort Study","volume":"29","author":"Kajantie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2019.1327","article-title":"Association of Preterm Birth With Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease in Adulthood","volume":"173","author":"Crump","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2023.0083","article-title":"Preterm Birth, Small for Gestational Age, and Large for Gestational Age and the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation Up to Middle Age","volume":"177","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2609","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.120.033797","article-title":"Stroke Risks in Adult Survivors of Preterm Birth: National Cohort and Cosibling Study","volume":"52","author":"Crump","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000254471.72186.03","article-title":"Infant growth and stroke in adult life: The Helsinki birth cohort study","volume":"38","author":"Osmond","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-014-9892-5","article-title":"Cerebrovascular and ischemic heart disease in young adults born preterm: A population-based Swedish cohort study","volume":"29","author":"Ueda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-05044-z","article-title":"Preterm birth and risk of type 1 and type 2 diabetes: A national cohort study","volume":"63","author":"Crump","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2623","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-0912","article-title":"Preterm birth\u2014A risk factor for type 2 diabetes? The Helsinki birth cohort study","volume":"33","author":"Kajantie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12214","article-title":"Preterm birth and risk of type 1 and type 2 diabetes: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s11936-019-0712-9","article-title":"Preterm Birth Is a Novel, Independent Risk Factor for Altered Cardiac Remodeling and Early Heart Failure: Is it Time for a New Cardiomyopathy?","volume":"21","author":"Burchert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2618","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.121.035283","article-title":"Young Adult Survivors of Preterm Birth Are at Increased Risk of Stroke: The Missing Link","volume":"52","author":"Dlamini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.528356","article-title":"Birth weight is inversely associated with incident coronary heart disease and stroke among individuals born in the 1950s: Findings from the Aberdeen Children of the 1950s prospective cohort study","volume":"112","author":"Lawlor","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crump, C., Sundquist, J., and Sundquist, K. (2025). Adverse pregnancy outcomes and long-term stroke risks. Eur. Heart J., ehaf627.","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaf627"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-017-4493-y","article-title":"Associations between birthweight, gestational age at birth and subsequent type 1 diabetes in children under 12: A retrospective cohort study in England, 1998\u20132012","volume":"61","author":"Goldacre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2020.105187","article-title":"An overview of adult health outcomes after preterm birth","volume":"150","author":"Crump","year":"2020","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-020-00713-1","article-title":"The prevalence of pediatric metabolic syndrome-a critical look on the discrepancies between definitions and its clinical importance","volume":"45","author":"Reisinger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ja\u0144czewska, I., Wierzba, J., Ja\u0144czewska, A., Szczurek-Gierczak, M., and Dom\u017calska-Popadiuk, I. (2023). Prematurity and Low Birth Weight and Their Impact on Childhood Growth Patterns and the Risk of Long-Term Cardiovascular Sequelae. Children, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/children10101599"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou-Yang, M.C., Sun, Y., Liebowitz, M., Chen, C.C., Fang, M.L., Dai, W., Chuang, T.W., and Chen, J.L. (2024). Correction: Accelerated weight gain, prematurity, and the risk of childhood obesity: A meta-analysis and systematic review. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298556"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-0220","article-title":"The relation of childhood BMI to adult adiposity: The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"115","author":"Freedman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802544","article-title":"Inter-relationships among childhood BMI, childhood height, and adult obesity: The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"28","author":"Freedman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2109191","article-title":"Childhood Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Adult Cardiovascular Events","volume":"386","author":"Jacobs","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/31.6.1235","article-title":"Fetal origins of adult disease: Strength of effects and biological basis","volume":"31","author":"Barker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12164","article-title":"What is the evidence in humans that DNA methylation changes link events in utero and later life disease?","volume":"78","author":"Reynolds","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/441143a","article-title":"Epigenetics: Unfinished symphony","volume":"441","author":"Qiu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e640","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3379","article-title":"Preterm birth and body composition at term equivalent age: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"130","author":"Johnson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.siny.2013.11.003","article-title":"Long-term growth and general health for the tiniest or most immature infants","volume":"19","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1203\/01.PDR.0000148284.58934.1C","article-title":"Altered adiposity after extremely preterm birth","volume":"57","author":"Uthaya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2010.29247","article-title":"Association between birth weight and visceral fat in adults","volume":"92","author":"Loos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2016.04.012","article-title":"Nonlinear Relationship between Birth Weight and Visceral Fat in Adolescents","volume":"174","author":"Stansfield","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31560","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31560","article-title":"ELBW survivors in early adulthood have higher hepatic, pancreatic and subcutaneous fat","volume":"6","author":"Crane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sipola-Lepp\u00e4nen, M., Hovi, P., Andersson, S., Wehkalampi, K., V\u00e4\u00e4r\u00e4sm\u00e4ki, M., Strang-Karlsson, S., J\u00e4rvenp\u00e4\u00e4, A.L., M\u00e4kitie, O., Eriksson, J.G., and Kajantie, E. (2011). Resting energy expenditure in young adults born preterm--the Helsinki study of very low birth weight adults. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017700"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"e00037","article-title":"Defining longitudinal trajectory of body mass index percentile and predicting childhood obesity: Methodologies and findings in the Boston Birth Cohort","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precis. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2020-319328","article-title":"Size at birth, growth trajectory in early life, and cardiovascular and metabolic risks in early adulthood: EPICure study","volume":"106","author":"Ni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.2.324","article-title":"Upward weight percentile crossing in infancy and early childhood independently predicts fat mass in young adults: The Stockholm Weight Development Study (SWEDES)","volume":"83","author":"Ekelund","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.RV17039","article-title":"Adult-Onset Diseases in Low Birth Weight Infants: Association with Adipose Tissue Maldevelopment","volume":"27","author":"Nakano","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06902","article-title":"Dynamics of fat cell turnover in humans","volume":"453","author":"Spalding","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2009.12.006","article-title":"Adipose tissue expandability, lipotoxicity and the Metabolic Syndrome\u2014An allostatic perspective","volume":"1801","author":"Virtue","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-2854","article-title":"Obesity and inflammation: Evidence for an elementary lesion","volume":"117","author":"Sbarbati","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2007.04.053","article-title":"Fat cell size, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation in obese children","volume":"151","author":"Maffeis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0239-2","article-title":"Body composition and insulin resistance in children","volume":"72","author":"Maffeis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-1376","article-title":"Adipose Insulin Resistance in Obese Adolescents Across the Spectrum of Glucose Tolerance","volume":"101","author":"Hershkop","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13185","article-title":"Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Cause or consequence of type 2 diabetes?","volume":"36","author":"Valenti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2018.03.023","article-title":"Fetuin-B links nonalcoholic fatty liver disease to type 2 diabetes via inducing insulin resistance: Association and path analyses","volume":"108","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1072","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-4186","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents born preterm","volume":"134","author":"Hovi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e680","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(23)00145-7","article-title":"Preterm birth and the risk of multimorbidity in adolescence: A multiregister-based cohort study","volume":"8","author":"Pulakka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hochmayr, C., Ndayisaba, J.P., Gande, N., Staudt, A., Bernar, B., Stock, K., Kiechl, S.J., Geiger, R., Griesmaier, E., and Knoflach, M. (2023). Cardiovascular health profiles in adolescents being born term or preterm-results from the EVA-Tyrol study. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-023-03360-2"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandes, R.O., Dos Santos, V.B., Saalfeld, R.M., Evaristo, A.S., Bernardi, J.R., Rovedder, P.M.E., Nuyt, A.M., Luu, T.M., Procianoy, R.S., and Silveira, R.C. (2025). Cardiometabolic characteristics of school-aged children born preterm with very low birth weight. Pediatr. Res.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-025-04253-0"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cauzzo, C., Chiavaroli, V., Di Valerio, S., and Chiarelli, F. (2023). Birth size, growth trajectory and later cardio-metabolic risk. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1187261"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-022-02966-2","article-title":"Liver stiffness measurement identifies subclinical myocardial dysfunction in non-advanced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients without overt heart disease","volume":"17","author":"Sonaglioni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"oead108","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjopen\/oead108","article-title":"Association between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and subclinical left ventricular dysfunction in the general population","volume":"3","author":"Hirose","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Open"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, V.H.S. (2022). Cardiovascular Morbidities in Adults Born Preterm: Getting to the Heart of the Matter!. Children, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/children9121843"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15574","article-title":"Impact of the Vulnerable Preterm Heart and Circulation on Adult Cardiovascular Disease Risk","volume":"76","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.03.032","article-title":"The oxygen-rich postnatal environment induces cardiomyocyte cell-cycle arrest through DNA damage response","volume":"157","author":"Puente","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.126920","article-title":"Preterm heart in adult life: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance reveals distinct differences in left ventricular mass, geometry, and function","volume":"127","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002583","article-title":"Right ventricular systolic dysfunction in young adults born preterm","volume":"128","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.1511","article-title":"Association Between Preterm Birth and Arrested Cardiac Growth in Adolescents and Young Adults","volume":"5","author":"Goss","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.01.046","article-title":"Physiological Stress Elicits Impaired Left Ventricular Function in Preterm-Born Adults","volume":"71","author":"Huckstep","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonafiglia, E., Garzon, S., Forte, N., Bosco, M., Ciuffreda, M., Cristofaletti, A., Hoxha, S., Beghini, R., Uccella, S., and Gottin, L. (2025). Association of patent ductus arteriosus duration with bronchopulmonary dysplasia and mortality: A cohort study. Pediatr. Res.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-025-04067-0"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ficial, B., Corsini, I., Clemente, M., Cappelleri, A., Remaschi, G., Quer, L., Urbani, G., Sandrini, C., Biban, P., and Dani, C. (2022). Feasibility, Reproducibility and Reference Ranges of Left Atrial Strain in Preterm and Term Neonates in the First 48 h of Life. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12020350"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jeaa060","article-title":"Impaired myocardial reserve underlies reduced exercise capacity and heart rate recovery in preterm-born young adults","volume":"22","author":"Huckstep","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201710-2016OC","article-title":"Early Pulmonary Vascular Disease in Young Adults Born Preterm","volume":"198","author":"Goss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.08167","article-title":"Blood Pressure in Young Adults Born at Very Low Birth Weight: Adults Born Preterm International Collaboration","volume":"68","author":"Hovi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s11906-016-0637-6","article-title":"Preterm Birth and Hypertension: Is There a Link?","volume":"18","author":"Bertagnolli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2015.102","article-title":"Comprehensive multi-modality assessment of regional and global arterial structure and function in adults born preterm","volume":"39","author":"Boardman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2017.06.020","article-title":"A novel genetic model to explore the Brenner hypothesis: Linking nephron endowment and number with hypertension","volume":"106","author":"Didion","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-025-06909-9","article-title":"From survival to surveillance: The long-term kidney legacy of preterm birth","volume":"41","author":"Vidal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.17316","article-title":"The effect of antenatal corticosteroid use on offspring cardiovascular function: A systematic review","volume":"130","author":"Sacco","year":"2023","journal-title":"BJOG"}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/1\/256\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T14:51:41Z","timestamp":1767192701000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/1\/256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15010256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15010256","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]}}}