{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T12:24:55Z","timestamp":1791203095924,"version":"4.2.0"},"reference-count":265,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open access funding","award":["SUBZ.L010.25.053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SUBZ.L010.25.053"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Massage therapy delivers structured mechanosensory input that can influence brain function, yet the central mechanisms and potential for neuroplastic change have not been synthesized across neuroimaging modalities. This mechanistic review integrates evidence from electroencephalography (EEG), functional MRI (fMRI), and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to map how massage alters human brain activity acutely and over time and to identify signals of longitudinal adaptation. Materials and Methods: We conducted a scoping, mechanistic review informed by PRISMA\/PRISMA-ScR principles. PubMed\/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate were queried for English-language human trials (January 1990\u2013July 2025) that (1) delivered a practitioner-applied manual massage (e.g., Swedish, Thai, shiatsu, tuina, reflexology, myofascial techniques) and (2) measured brain activity with EEG, fMRI, or fNIRS pre\/post or between groups. Non-manual stimulation, structural-only imaging, protocols, and non-English reports were excluded. Two reviewers independently screened and extracted study, intervention, and neuroimaging details; heterogeneity precluded meta-analysis, so results were narratively synthesized by modality and linked to putative mechanisms and longitudinal effects. Results: Forty-seven studies met the criteria: 30 EEG, 12 fMRI, and 5 fNIRS. Results: Regarding EEG, massage commonly increased alpha across single sessions with reductions in beta\/gamma, alongside pressure-dependent autonomic shifts; moderate pressure favored a parasympathetic\/relaxation profile. Connectivity effects were state- and modality-specific (e.g., reduced inter-occipital alpha coherence after facial massage, preserved or reorganized coupling with hands-on vs. mechanical delivery). Frontal alpha asymmetry frequently shifted leftward (approach\/positive affect). Pain cohorts showed decreased cortical entropy and a shift toward slower rhythms, which tracked analgesia. Somatotopy emerged during unilateral treatments (contralateral central beta suppression). Adjuncts (e.g., binaural beats) enhanced anti-fatigue indices. Longitudinally, repeated programs showed attenuation of acute EEG\/cortisol responses yet improvements in stress and performance; in one program, BDNF increased across weeks. In preterm infants, twice-daily massage accelerated EEG maturation (higher alpha\/beta, lower delta) in a dose-responsive fashion; the EEG background was more continuous. In fMRI studies, in-scanner touch and reflexology engaged the insula, anterior cingulate, striatum, and periaqueductal gray; somatotopic specificity was observed for mapped foot areas. Resting-state studies in chronic pain reported normalization of regional homogeneity and\/or connectivity within default-mode and salience\/interoceptive networks after multi-session tuina or osteopathic interventions, paralleling symptom improvement; some task-based effects persisted at delayed follow-up. fNIRS studies generally showed increased prefrontal oxygenation during\/after massage; in motor-impaired cohorts, acupressure\/massage enhanced lateralized sensorimotor activation, consistent with use-dependent plasticity. Some reports paired hemodynamic changes with oxytocin and autonomic markers. Conclusions: Across modalities, massage reliably modulates central activity acutely and shows convergent signals of neuroplastic adaptation with repeated dosing and in developmental windows. Evidence supports (i) rapid induction of relaxed\/analgesic states (alpha increases, network rebalancing) and (ii) longer-horizon changes\u2014network normalization in chronic pain, EEG maturation in preterm infants, and neurotrophic up-shifts\u2014consistent with trait-level recalibration of stress, interoception, and pain circuits. These findings justify integrating massage into rehabilitation, pain management, mental health, and neonatal care and motivate larger, standardized, multimodal longitudinal trials to define dose\u2013response relationships, durability, and mechanistic mediators (e.g., connectivity targets, neuropeptides).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15020909","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T09:21:40Z","timestamp":1769505700000},"page":"909","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Through Massage to the Brain\u2014Neuronal and Neuroplastic Mechanisms of Massage Based on Various Neuroimaging Techniques (EEG, fMRI, and fNIRS)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5320-3658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Chmiel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Neurofeedback and tDCS Poland, ul. 3 Maja 25-27, 70-215 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6996-8920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donata","family":"Kurpas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Division of Research Methodology, Wroc\u0142aw Medical University, 51-618 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"15","article-title":"Clarifying Definitions for the Massage Therapy Profession: The Results of the Best Practices Symposium","volume":"9","author":"Kennedy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. 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