{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T19:02:37Z","timestamp":1785870157259,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funding Universidad Mayor, Chile"},{"name":"FONIS","award":["SA24I0065"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SA24I0065"]}]},{"name":"Interdisciplinary","award":["11340012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11340012"]}]},{"name":"Escuela de Enfermer\u00eda, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Chile"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Building on the validation of the Your Memory test for mild cognitive impairment in English speakers, this study adapted and validated the Memory Test for Mild Cognitive Impairment (TYM-MCI) for older Spanish-speaking adults, highlighting its potential utility for the early detection of amnestic mild cognitive impairment and cognitive profiles associated with increased risk of dementia. Methods: A total of 151 independently functioning adults aged 60 or older (Barthel Index 9\u201310) completed the TYM-MCI, the Addenbrooke\u2019s Cognitive Examination-Revised (ACE-R-Ch), the Mini-Mental State Examination, and the original TYM. Analyses included ROC curves, correlation matrices, and principal component analysis (PCA). Results: The TYM-MCI exhibited strong psychometric properties (Cronbach\u2019s \u03b1 = 0.832; sensitivity = 81.7%; specificity = 47.8%). The optimal cut-off score was \u226524.5\/30. Scores between 19 and 24.5 suggested probable mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Conclusions: The episodic memory components of this test are key cognitive features relevant to the modification and monitoring of early cognitive decline and are straightforward to administer. Notably, the TYM-MCI specifically assesses both visual and verbal episodic memory. It can be used alongside other assessments, such as the ACE-R or MMSE, to support the clinical evaluation of cognitive functioning in older adults. Clinically, it provides an early assessment and follow-up in individuals presenting with memory complaints, contributing to timely clinical decision-making in the context of cognitive decline.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15031236","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T14:55:11Z","timestamp":1770216911000},"page":"1236","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Episodic Memory in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment at Risk for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Spanish Validation of the TYM-MCI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3427-9241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1mbar","family":"Belmar-Moreno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Psicolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Mayor, Av. Manuel Montt 367, Santiago 757008, Chile"},{"name":"Facultad de Ciencia de la Salud, Universidad del Alba (UDALBA), Av. Ej\u00e9rcito Libertador 171, Santiago 8370007, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6956-2333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felipe","family":"Ega\u00f1a-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Psicolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Mayor, Av. Manuel Montt 367, Santiago 757008, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0263-5205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amparo","family":"Castillo-Borred\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Psicolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Comunicaciones, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Av. Ej\u00e9rcito Libertador 171, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0924-3896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika","family":"Caballero-Mu\u00f1oz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Enfermer\u00eda, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4373-144X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vicente","family":"Gatica-Elgart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Psicolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Mayor, Av. Manuel Montt 367, Santiago 757008, Chile"},{"name":"Servicio de Neurolog\u00eda, Hospital Cl\u00ednico Herminda Martin, Chill\u00e1n 3810525, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9918-4492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando A.","family":"Crespo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Economy and Business, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Erasmo Escala 1835, Santiago 8340539, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9036-0084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Salinas-Lainez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Enfermer\u00eda, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2713-8432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norma","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Ojeda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Sede Providencia, Manuel Montt 948, Santiago 7500975, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3901-6309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danton","family":"Freire-Flores","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Prevenci\u00f3n y Cuidados de la Salud (+SALUD), Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7111-2045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Carvallo-Varas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Prevenci\u00f3n y Cuidados de la Salud (+SALUD), Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7705-4347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9ctor","family":"Burgos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Enfermer\u00eda, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Prevenci\u00f3n y Cuidados de la Salud (+SALUD), Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tom\u00e1s, Santiago 8370003, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1796","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-021-01978-x","article-title":"Memory consolidation as an adaptive process","volume":"28","author":"Cowan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200713","article-title":"Dyadic Group Exercises for Persons with Memory Deficits and Care Partners: Mixed-Method Findings from the Paired Preventing Loss of Independence through Exercise (PLI\u00c9) Randomized Trial","volume":"78","author":"Mehling","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2024.102335","article-title":"Overlooked cases of mild cognitive impairment: Implications to early Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"98","author":"Mian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"377","article-title":"Epidemiology of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias","volume":"66","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852918001347","article-title":"State of the science on mild cognitive impairment (MCI)","volume":"24","author":"Anderson","year":"2019","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Ministerio de Salud (2017, October 30). Plan Nacional de Demencia, Available online: https:\/\/www.minsal.cl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/11\/PLAN-DE-DEMENCIA.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004826","article-title":"Practice guideline update summary: Mild cognitive impairment [RETIRED]: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology","volume":"90","author":"Petersen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114","article-title":"Episodic memory: From mind to brain","volume":"53","author":"Tulving","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143733","article-title":"Episodic Memory and Beyond: The Hippocampus and Neocortex in Transformation","volume":"67","author":"Moscovitch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108777","article-title":"The role of recollection, familiarity, and the hippocampus in episodic and working memory","volume":"193","author":"Yonelinas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2011.10.021","article-title":"Episodic memory on the path to Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"21","author":"Gallagher","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Alzheimer\u2019s Association (2020). 2020 Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Assoc., 2, 5."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2016.02.002","article-title":"Preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Definition, natural history, and diagnostic criteria","volume":"12","author":"Dubois","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Assoc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X18666200528142429","article-title":"Recent advancements in pathogenesis, diagnostics and treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"18","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-130881","article-title":"Neuropsychological predictors of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"38","author":"Gainotti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70090-0","article-title":"Advancing research diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer\u2019s disease: The IWG-2 criteria","volume":"13","author":"Dubois","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.4782","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of dementia: Review","volume":"322","author":"Arvanitakis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrl.2017.06.004","article-title":"Validaci\u00f3n argentino-chilena de la versi\u00f3n en espa\u00f1ol del test Addenbrooke\u2019s Cognitive Examination III para el diagn\u00f3stico de demencia","volume":"35","author":"Bruno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurolog\u00eda"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.4067\/S0034-98872012000800006","article-title":"Propiedades psicom\u00e9tricas y utilidad diagn\u00f3stica del Addenbrooke\u2019s Cognitive Examination-Revised (ACE-R) en una muestra de ancianos chilenos","volume":"140","author":"Ihnen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9d. Chile"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, J., Wiggins, J., Dawson, K., Rittman, T., and Rowe, J. (2019). Test Your Memory (TYM) and Test Your Memory for Mild Cognitive Impairment (TYM-MCI): A review and update including results of using the TYM test in a general neurology clinic and using a telephone version of the TYM test. Diagnostics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics9030116"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2016-315327","article-title":"The Test Your Memory for Mild Cognitive Impairment (TYM-MCI)","volume":"88","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205013666161201202520","article-title":"The Test Your Memory (TYM) test outperforms the MMSE in the detection of MCI and dementia","volume":"14","author":"Jansen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.33588\/rn.6012.2014124","article-title":"Propuesta de una bater\u00eda neuropsicol\u00f3gica de evaluaci\u00f3n cognitiva para detectar y discriminar deterioro cognitivo leve y demencias","volume":"60","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4055","article-title":"Test Your Memory-Spanish version (TYM-S): A validation study of a self-administered cognitive screening test","volume":"29","author":"Chaparro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4249","article-title":"Hard-TYM: A pragmatic study","volume":"30","author":"Larner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4005","article-title":"The hard Test Your Memory. Evaluation of a short cognitive test to detect mild Alzheimer\u2019s disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment","volume":"29","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estad\u00edstica (2018, July 05). S\u00edntesis de Resultados Censo 2017, Available online: https:\/\/www.ine.gob.cl\/docs\/default-source\/censo-de-poblacion-y-vivienda\/publicaciones-y-anuarios\/2017\/publicaci%C3%B3n-de-resultados\/sintesis-de-resultados-censo2017.pdf?sfvrsn=1b2dfb06_6."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Servicio Nacional del Adulto Mayor [SENAMA] (2018, July 05). Envejecimiento en Chile: Evoluci\u00f3n y Caracter\u00edsticas de Las Personas Mayores, Available online: https:\/\/www.senama.gob.cl\/storage\/docs\/envejecimiento-en-chile-evolucion-y-caracteristicas-de-las-personas-mayores.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Chile [Country Overview], World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/data.who.int\/countries\/152."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.4067\/S0034-98872020000600799","article-title":"Las personas mayores en Chile: El nuevo desaf\u00edo social, econ\u00f3mico y de salud del siglo XXI","volume":"148","author":"Leiva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9d. Chile"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dom\u00ednguez, L.J., Veronese, N., Vernuccio, L., Catanese, G., Inzerillo, F., Salemi, G., and Barbagallo, M. (2021). Nutrition, physical activity, and other lifestyle factors in the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13114080"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"afaf004","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afaf004","article-title":"Early detection and management of hearing loss to reduce dementia risk in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: Findings from the treating auditory impairment and cognition trial (TACT)","volume":"54","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2021.01.014","article-title":"Does low subjective social status predict cognitive decline in Chinese older adults? A 4-year longitudinal study from Hong Kong","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1515\/dx-2015-0031","article-title":"Evaluation of DSM-5 and IWG-2 criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies","volume":"3","author":"Baker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diagnosis"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, R., Fern\u00e1ndez, C., and Baptista, M.P. (2014). Metodolog\u00eda de la Investigaci\u00f3n, McGraw-Hill. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Medical Association (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310, 2191\u20132194.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281053"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2019.1584786","article-title":"Adapted MMSE and TYM cognitive tests: How much powerful in screening for Alzheimer\u2019s disease in Iranian people","volume":"24","author":"Salami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.4067\/S0034-98872004000400009","article-title":"Validaci\u00f3n de un test de tamizaje para el diagn\u00f3stico de demencia asociada a edad, en Chile","volume":"132","author":"Quiroga","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9d. Chile"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2017.02.020","article-title":"The efficacy of a nutrition education intervention to prevent risk of malnutrition for dependent elderly patients receiving Home Care: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"70","author":"Basora","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Aiken, L.R. (2003). Tests Psicol\u00f3gicos y Evaluaci\u00f3n, Pearson Educaci\u00f3n. [11th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semerg.2022.101821","article-title":"La curva ROC [ROC curve]","volume":"49","year":"2023","journal-title":"SEMERGEN"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-57642021dn15-020006","article-title":"Neuropsychological profile in the preclinical stages of dementia: Principal component analysis approach","volume":"15","author":"Custodio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dement. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.4097\/kja.21209","article-title":"Receiver operating characteristic curve: Overview and practical use for clinicians","volume":"75","author":"Nahm","year":"2022","journal-title":"Korean J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000279336.36610.f7","article-title":"Amnestic syndrome of the medial temporal type identifies prodromal AD: A longitudinal study","volume":"69","author":"Sarazin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1030","article-title":"Verbal vs. visual memory in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A meta-analytical review","volume":"85","author":"Gainotti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatzikostopoulos, A., Moraitou, D., Tsolaki, M., Masoura, E., Papantoniou, G., Sofologi, M., Papaliagkas, V., Kougioumtzis, G., and Papatzikis, E. (2022). Episodic Memory in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI) and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Dementia (ADD): Using the \u201cDoors and People\u201d Tool to Differentiate between Early aMCI-Late aMCI-Mild ADD Diagnostic Groups. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12071768"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1159\/000338606","article-title":"The technology\u2014Activities of daily living questionnaire: A version with a technology-related subscale","volume":"33","author":"Riveros","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2021.1893172","article-title":"Differences between episodic and semantic memory in predicting observation-based activities of daily living in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"29","author":"Nakhla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"5284504","article-title":"False memory in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"2020","author":"Colombel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.117.019595","article-title":"Functional trajectories, cognition, and subclinical cerebrovascular disease","volume":"49","author":"Dhamoon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"30","article-title":"Validez de instrumentos neuropsicol\u00f3gicos utilizados en el sistema de salud p\u00fablico chileno. Una revisi\u00f3n sistem\u00e1tica: Validez de test neuropsicol\u00f3gicos utilizados en Chile","volume":"15","author":"Salas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsicol. Latinoam."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2016.02.002","article-title":"Apolipoprotein E (APOE) \u03b54 and episodic memory decline in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A review","volume":"27","author":"Antoine","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617720001095","article-title":"Comparison of education and episodic memory as modifiers of brain atrophy effects on cognitive decline: Implications for measuring cognitive reserve","volume":"27","author":"Mungas","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004","article-title":"Cognitive reserve","volume":"47","author":"Stern","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1993.03500180078038","article-title":"Population-based norms for the Mini-Mental State Examination by age and educational level","volume":"269","author":"Crum","year":"1993","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"588","article-title":"Should the Mini-Mental State Examination be retired?","volume":"33","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurolog\u00eda"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00221","article-title":"Dementia in Latin America: Epidemiological evidence and implications for public policy","volume":"9","author":"Custodio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.4067\/S0034-98872019001201594","article-title":"Reserva cognitiva y demencias: Limitaciones del efecto protector en el envejecimiento y el deterioro cognitivo","volume":"147","author":"Martella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9d. Chile"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"57","article-title":"La estimulaci\u00f3n cognitiva en personas adultas mayores","volume":"11","author":"Madrigal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. C\u00fapula"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2019.05.003","article-title":"The effects of different types of physical exercise on physical and cognitive function in frail institutionalized older adults with mild to moderate cognitive impairment. A randomized controlled trial","volume":"83","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"24","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n neuropsicol\u00f3gica de la memoria epis\u00f3dica","volume":"20","year":"2023","journal-title":"Edupsykh\u00e9 Rev. Psicol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1590\/S1980-57642013DN70100007","article-title":"Chilean version of the INECO Frontal Screening (IFS-Ch): Psychometric properties and diagnostic accuracy","volume":"7","author":"Bruna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dement. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Sbordone, R.J., and Long, C.J. (1998). Ecological Validity: Some Critical Issues for the Neuropsychologist, St. Lucie Press."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"289","article-title":"Validez ecol\u00f3gica en la exploraci\u00f3n de las funciones ejecutivas","volume":"23","year":"2007","journal-title":"An. Psicol. Ann. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.04.078","article-title":"White-matter changes in early and late stages of mild cognitive impairment","volume":"78","author":"Kurt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1037\/cep0000293","article-title":"The use of distraction to improve episodic memory in ageing: A review of methods and theoretical implications","volume":"77","author":"Demonty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Can. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1044\/2021_JSLHR-21-00178","article-title":"Is old age just a number in language skills? Language performance and its relation to age, education, gender, cognitive screening, and dentition in very old Finnish speakers","volume":"65","author":"Alantie","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2019.05.016","article-title":"How cognitive reserve influences older adults\u2019 cognitive state, executive functions and language comprehension: A structural equation model","volume":"84","author":"Atienza","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"CD010783","article-title":"Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI)","volume":"3","author":"Smailagic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"403","article-title":"Is episodic future thinking important for instrumental activities of daily living? A study in neurological patients and healthy older adults","volume":"34","author":"Brunette","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2011-110557","article-title":"Which memory system is impaired first in Alzheimer\u2019s disease?","volume":"27","author":"Didic","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-025-12996-3","article-title":"Blood phosphorylated Tau217 distinguishes amyloid-positive from amyloid-negative subjects in the Alzheimer\u2019s disease continuum. A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"272","author":"Antonioni","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180293","article-title":"Diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment Due to Alzheimer\u2019s Disease with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation","volume":"65","author":"Padovani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."}],"container-title":["Journal of Clinical Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/3\/1236\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T10:29:25Z","timestamp":1770373765000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/15\/3\/1236"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["jcm15031236"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm15031236","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0383"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0383","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]}}}