{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T15:06:48Z","timestamp":1791644808709,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH Center","award":["P30EY014801"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30EY014801"]}]},{"name":"The RPB Unrestricted Award and Career Development Awards"},{"name":"Dr. Ronald and Alicia Lepke Grant"},{"name":"The Lee and Claire Hager Grant"},{"name":"The Grant and Diana Stanton-Thornbrough"},{"name":"The Robert Baer Family Grant"},{"name":"The Jose Ferreira de Melo Grant"},{"name":"Mr. and Mrs. Irwin Friedman Grant"},{"name":"The Roberto and Antonia Menendez Family Grant"},{"name":"The Calvin and Flavia Oak Foundation"},{"name":"The Dr. Tim and Cammy Ioannides Grant"},{"name":"The Stephen Takach Grant"},{"name":"The Richard and Kathy Lesser Grant"},{"name":"The Ragheb Family Grant"},{"name":"The Honorable A. Jay Cristol Grant"},{"name":"The Michele and Ted Kaplan Grant"},{"name":"The Christian Kathke Grant"},{"name":"The Carol Soffer Grant"},{"name":"The Zvi Levin Grant and the Richard Azar Family Grant"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000738","name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000738","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Veterans Health Administration"},{"name":"Clinical Sciences R&D","award":["I01 CX002015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01 CX002015"]}]},{"name":"Clinical Sciences R&D","award":["1I01CX002633"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1I01CX002633"]}]},{"name":"Biomedical Laboratory R&D (BLRD) Service","award":["I01 BX004893"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01 BX004893"]}]},{"name":"Rehabilitation R&D","award":["I21 RX003883"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I21 RX003883"]}]},{"name":"Department of Defense Gulf War Illness Research Program","award":["W81XWH-20-1-0579"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-20-1-0579"]}]},{"name":"Vision Research Program","award":["W81XWH-20-1-0820"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-20-1-0820"]}]},{"name":"Vision Research Program","award":["HT9425-23-1-0608"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HT9425-23-1-0608"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Artificial intelligence (AI) has been explored as a promising diagnostic aid for ocular surface diseases (OSDs). The spectrum of OSD ranges from highly prevalent benign conditions such as dry eye disease (DED) to rare but potentially dangerous disorders, including ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN) and conjunctival melanoma. This review provides an overview of current applications of AI across the major categories of ocular surface pathology and specifically highlights anterior segment imaging modalities, including slit-lamp examination, optical coherence tomography (OCT), and in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM). Meibography, tear film dynamics, biochemical profiling, and other DED-related measures are also examined. Across these domains, reported AI model performance matches or exceeds that of ophthalmologists, offering consistent, reproducible, and accurate approaches for guiding diagnosis. However, studies with limited external or prospective validation, variable labeling strategies, and small, device-specific datasets predominate in the current literature, thereby limiting generalizability. Large multicenter datasets, standardized diagnostic frameworks, multimodal integration, and prospective trials that assess human\u2013AI cooperation in practical settings should be an emphasis in future research. By filling these gaps, AI systems could advance from experimental tools to clinically reliable applications that improve access and diagnostic accuracy in the care of ocular surface disease and tumors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15051741","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T13:37:37Z","timestamp":1772026657000},"page":"1741","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Artificial Intelligence for Diagnostic Guidance in Ocular Surface Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7500-0731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amr","family":"Almobayed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Badla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6193-3803","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pragat J.","family":"Muthu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4934-6139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Alba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5526-1396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Antonietti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3026-6155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anat","family":"Galor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Miami Veterans Administration Medical Center, Miami, FL 33125, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carol L.","family":"Karp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.08.010","article-title":"Prevalence, Treatment, and Outcomes of Coexistent Ocular Surface Squamous Neoplasia and Pterygium","volume":"120","author":"Oellers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"153","article-title":"New perspectives in ocular surface disorders. 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