{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T11:35:25Z","timestamp":1773056125293,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Developmental stuttering (DS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder affecting approximately 5% of children, characterized by involuntary disruptions in speech fluency. Despite its prevalence, the precise pathophysiology remains elusive, and current behavioral and pharmacological interventions often yield variable long-term efficacy. This scoping review evaluates the therapeutic potential of transcranial photobiomodulation (t-PBM), a non-invasive neuromodulation technique, by summarizing its mechanisms of action with the known neurophysiological deficits of DS. Evidence indicates that DS is associated with reduced regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in Broca\u2019s area, mitochondrial dysfunction, and impaired neural connectivity. t-PBM may address these deficits by stimulating cytochrome c oxidase, thereby increasing ATP production and triggering nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation to enhance rCBF. Furthermore, t-PBM promotes neuroplasticity, modulates astrocyte function\u2014potentially counteracting GNPTAB-related deficits\u2014and exhibits anxiolytic effects that may alleviate the secondary psychological burden of DS. By targeting these multifactorial underpinnings, t-PBM may represent a promising, low-risk adjunct or primary intervention for DS, though this remains to be tested empirically. While the theoretical framework is robust, clinical trials are needed to determine whether t-PBM has therapeutic utility, to optimize treatment parameters, establish longitudinal efficacy, and explore synergistic effects with established speech-language therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15052041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T08:58:45Z","timestamp":1773046725000},"page":"2041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring Photobiomodulation as a Potential Novel Intervention for Developmental Stuttering: A Review and Hypothesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9797-1935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Borja Ignacio","family":"Ferreras","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neuropsychiatry and Neuromodulation, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manuela","family":"Goyeneche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota D.C., Bogota 110231, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0225-199X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Cassano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neuropsychiatry and Neuromodulation, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Frank H.","family":"Guenther","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Speech, Language & Hearing Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4216-683X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria","family":"Tumanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"479","article-title":"Stuttering: Clinical and research update","volume":"62","author":"Perez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. 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