{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T21:16:42Z","timestamp":1792444602583,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 2 diabetes (T2D) exhibits substantial phenotypic heterogeneity, resulting in diverse cardiovascular (CV) outcomes driven by multiple pathophysiological mechanisms beyond hyperglycemia alone. T2D should be recognized as a systemic cardiometabolic condition in which insulin resistance, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial and microvascular dysfunction promote a broad spectrum of cardiovascular diseases. The traditional \u201cone-size-fits-all\u201d approach to cardiovascular risk management has been proven insufficient, as individuals with T2D display marked variability in clinical presentation, disease trajectory, treatment response, and cardiovascular phenotype. In this context, personalized medicine strategies integrating clinical phenotyping, individualized risk stratification, and tailored therapeutic interventions offer the potential to optimize cardiometabolic outcomes while minimizing treatment burden and adverse effects. This narrative review examines the rationale and current evidence supporting personalized cardiovascular risk management in T2D. We discuss the heterogeneity of diabetes-related CV phenotypes, encompassing both atherosclerotic and non-atherosclerotic complications. We further examine the major cardiometabolic risk factors closely linked to diabetes, including dyslipidemia, hypertension, obesity, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic liver disease, which act synergistically to accelerate vascular damage and end-organ injury, and are essential for defining personalized prognostic and therapeutic programs. Finally, we present structured approaches to cardiovascular assessment and highlight contemporary management strategies that prioritize integrated, phenotype-driven risk reduction using cardioprotective glucose-lowering therapies together with optimized lipid-lowering, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, and weight-modifying interventions. The transition from population-based guidelines to individualized, patient-centered care represents a paradigm shift in diabetes management, with the potential to substantially reduce the excess CV burden associated with this condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15062358","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T15:38:01Z","timestamp":1773934681000},"page":"2358","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Cardiovascular Burden of Diabetes: Risk Factors, Clinical Phenotypes, and Personalized Cardiometabolic Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8511-3589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuliano","family":"Cassataro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine and Pulmonology Unit, Fondazione Istituto \u201cG. Giglio\u201d, 90015 Cefal\u00f9, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3806-1151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulio","family":"Geraci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, \u201cKore\u201d University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy"},{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, Hospital Umberto I, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Ausilia","family":"Giusti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UPMC Italy (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center), 90127 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Diabetes Service, IRCCS ISMETT, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlo","family":"Maida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, S. Elia Hospital, 93100 Caltanissetta, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viviana","family":"Maggio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Childcare, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, School of Medicine, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9549-8504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manfredi","family":"Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Childcare, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, School of Medicine, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Internal Medicine Department, College of Medical Sciences, Ras Al Khaimah Medical and Health Sciences University, Ras Al Khaimah 11172, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3458-0894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Mattina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UPMC Italy (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center), 90127 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Diabetes Service, IRCCS ISMETT, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119","article-title":"IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045","volume":"183","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. 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