{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T15:42:41Z","timestamp":1776440561618,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Inguinal hernia and hydrocele are common pediatric surgical conditions resulting from failed obliteration of the processus vaginalis during fetal development. Although prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been linked to adverse perinatal outcomes and congenital anomalies, its role in structurally defined pediatric surgical diseases remains unclear. We examined the association between maternal PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy and the risk of inguinal hernia or hydrocele in offspring. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of 1093 mother\u2013offspring pairs delivering at a tertiary referral center (July 2016\u2013June 2019). Monthly residential PM2.5 levels were estimated at geocoded maternal addresses using kriging interpolation from fixed-site monitoring stations. Offspring diagnosed with inguinal hernia or hydrocele through March 2024 were identified using ICD-10 codes. Perinatal characteristics were compared using t-tests and chi-square tests, and multivariable logistic regression assessed trimester-specific PM2.5 exposure and risk. Results: During follow-up, 53 offspring (4.85%) developed inguinal hernia or hydrocele. Male sex (odds ratio [OR], 24.71; 95% CI, 5.95\u2013102.54; p &lt; 0.001) and second-trimester PM2.5 exposure (OR, 1.07 per \u00b5g\/m3; 95% CI, 1.01\u20131.14; p = 0.028) were independent risk factors. A dose\u2013response pattern was observed across quartiles of second-trimester exposure; an interquartile range increase was associated with a 64% higher risk (OR, 1.64). The model showed good discrimination (AUC, 0.804). Conclusions: Elevated maternal PM2.5 exposure during the second trimester was independently associated with increased risk of inguinal hernia or hydrocele in offspring. Prenatal air pollution may contribute to persistence of the processus vaginalis and represents a potentially modifiable environmental risk factor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15083089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T14:24:51Z","timestamp":1776435891000},"page":"3089","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prenatal Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Exposure and the Risk\r\nof Pediatric Inguinal Hernia or Hydrocele: A Retrospective\r\nCohort Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0896-2389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eun Jung","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urban Planning, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6127-162X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin-Gon","family":"Bae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Keimyung University School of Medicine, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9982-7037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eun-jung","family":"Koo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Keimyung University School of Medicine, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Puri, P., and H\u00f6llwarth, M.E. 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