{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T09:45:09Z","timestamp":1776937509956,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that can involve the ocular surface and deeper ocular tissues, leading to a spectrum of ophthalmic manifestations ranging from dry eye disease to vision-threatening inflammation, such as scleritis and peripheral ulcerative keratitis (PUK). This paper presents the results of a narrative review conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar from database inception to March 2026. Eligible publications describing clinical features and management of RA-associated ocular disease were synthesized, and no unpublished data were included. According to the literature, dry eye disease (DED) is the most frequent ocular manifestation of RA, and it is primarily managed with lubrication and topical anti-inflammatory therapies, including cyclosporine and lifitegrast. Additional options for refractory disease include neurostimulation and evaporation-targeted therapy. Scleritis and PUK are less common but represent severe inflammatory complications that generally require systemic immunosuppression. Conventional management includes systemic corticosteroids and steroid-sparing agents such as methotrexate (MTX), azathioprine (AZA), cyclophosphamide (CYC), and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in aggressive cases. Escalation to biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (bDMARDs), specifically tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1) inhibitors and rituximab (RTX), is supported for refractory scleritis and corneal melt, although evidence is largely observational. Among anti-TNF agents, monoclonal antibodies, such as infliximab and adalimumab, appear more effective than etanercept for ocular inflammation. Rituximab is preferred for vasculitis-associated or refractory disease, and Janus Kinase (JAK) inhibitors represent an emerging option requiring careful safety monitoring. Evidence for DED therapies includes randomized controlled trials (RCTs), whereas data for RA-associated scleritis and PUK are largely derived from registries, case series, and case reports. Prospective studies with standardized ocular outcomes are needed to refine treatment algorithms and compare the effectiveness of biologic versus targeted synthetic agents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15093207","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T08:11:14Z","timestamp":1776931874000},"page":"3207","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An Overview of Rheumatoid Arthritis-Associated Dry Eye Disease, Scleritis, and Peripheral Ulcerative Keratitis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5345-1755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Garc\u00eda","family":"Forestier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00936-5067, Puerto Rico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2610-4019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo Murati","family":"Calder\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00936-5067, Puerto Rico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7533-6121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Armando","family":"Oliver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00936-5067, Puerto Rico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reuma.2025.501891","article-title":"Ocular inflammatory manifestations in patients with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"21","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Reumatol. 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