{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:18:34Z","timestamp":1789517914976,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005375","name":"Latvian Council of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["lzp-2023\/1-0027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["lzp-2023\/1-0027"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005375","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["lzp-2023\/1-0027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["lzp-2023\/1-0027"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ar66p97","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: To systematically synthesize existing evidence on functional biomechanical tests of the foot and ankle in physiotherapy and sports, focusing on their outcome measures, compatibility with wearable sensor technologies, and psychometric properties. Methods: We performed a systematic review (PRISMA-guided) of PubMed, Web of Science, PEDro, and SPORTDiscus from inception to December 2025. Eligible studies evaluated functional foot\/ankle biomechanics in athletes, healthy adults, or adults with musculoskeletal foot\/ankle conditions using wearable sensors (e.g., IMUs, wireless pressure insoles). Two reviewers independently screened, extracted data, and appraised methodological quality using the COSMIN Risk of Bias tool, applying property-specific ratings. Heterogeneity precluded meta-analysis; findings were narratively synthesized and tabulated. Results: Twenty full texts were reviewed; four studies (n = 83 participants) met the inclusion criteria. Wearable devices included foot- or trunk-mounted IMUs and wireless pressure insoles. Reported outcomes spanned temporal gait events and inner-stance phases, vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) and centre-of-pressure trajectories, running step rate\/stride length, and jump counts in competition. Validity was most frequently assessed: foot-worn IMUs showed millisecond-level agreement with in-shoe pressure references for stance and inner-stance events; pressure insoles demonstrated acceptable agreement with force plates for vGRF\/COP alongside fair-to-excellent test\u2013retest reliability; foot- vs. shank-mounted IMUs provided strong agreement for running step rate and stride length; and competition-based jump detection using IMUs achieved high sensitivity. Across studies, reliability indices were inconsistently reported, measurement error (SEM\/MDC) was sparse, and MCID was not reported. The COSMIN appraisal ranged from very good\/adequate to inadequate, driven primarily by small sample sizes, non-gold-standard comparators, and incomplete psychometric reporting.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15103892","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T14:40:31Z","timestamp":1779115231000},"page":"3892","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Functional Biomechanical Tests of the Foot and Ankle in Physiotherapy and Sports\u2014Outcome Measures, Wearable Sensor Integration, and Psychometric Properties: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Guna","family":"Semjonova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University, 16 Dzirciema Street, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Vallejo-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Cl\u00ednica en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Valladolid, 42004 Soria, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2170-8783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Ceballos-Laita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Cl\u00ednica en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Valladolid, 42004 Soria, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7460-3061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-del-Barrio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Cl\u00ednica en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Valladolid, 42004 Soria, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergejs","family":"Davidovics","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University, 16 Dzirciema Street, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Davidovica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University, 16 Dzirciema Street, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2016-096188","article-title":"2016 consensus statement of the International Ankle Consortium: Prevalence, impact and long-term consequences of lateral ankle sprains","volume":"50","author":"Gribble","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. 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